The reTenTion of academics in The early career phase

The purpose of the study was to determine to what extent academics in the early career phase at a South African higher education institution are committed to the institution in question and the impact which this commitment has on labour turnover. More than 21% of the original respondents left the institution while this research was still underway. Insufficient financial remuneration was the most important reason why the respondents considered leaving the institution.

The academic profession is central to the functioning of any university.Without well qualified and committed academic staff, no academic institution can really ensure sustainability and quality over the long haul (Altbach, 1991;Pienaar, 2005).Higher education institutions are therefore more dependent on the intellectual and creative abilities and commitment of their academic staff than most other organisations (Gillespie, Walsh, Winefiled, Dua & Stough, 2001;Küskü, 2003;Pienaar, 2005).The retention of human resources is critically important in organisations and institutions where financial sustainability and survival depend on scarce human and specialist skills.This situation is further exacerbated if these individuals are unattainable or when it becomes difficult to obtain and retain these specialists (McKeown, 2002;Phillips & Connell, 2003).The retention of human resources refers to attempts to ensure that employees stay in the organisation and that voluntary turnover will be minimised (Jackson & Schuler, 2000).
It would, however, appear that in future, higher education institutions will be increasingly obliged to make the retention of academics a strategic priority, since 68% of the academic personnel in a study in Australian higher education institutions indicated that they wished to leave higher education (Anderson, Richard & Saha, 2002).This problematic situation is also experienced in South African higher education institutions, since data indicates that a substantial number (between 5% and 18%) of academics leave higher education institutions (Koen, 2003).The retention of academics should be a strategic priority, since -according to Simmons (2002) -it is difficult to replace the knowledge, skills and experience of academic staff.These skills are only acquired over a long period of time and are accompanied by extensive experience.
According to Greenhaus and Callanan (1994) the early career stage encompasses two periods, namely establishment and achievement.During the establishment period of the early career employees have to become established in their careers and organisations.The new employee must not only master the technical aspects of his/her job but must also learn the norms, values, and expectations of the organisation.The major task of the individual is to learn about the job and the organisation and to become accepted as a competent contributor to the organisation.In the achievement period of the early career the individual is not as concerned with fitting into the organisation as he is with moving upward and mastering it.According to Greenhaus and Callanan (1994) the early career can extend all the way up to age 40.The dominant theme of the early career, becoming established and making it, can maintain itself in one form or another for a full 15 years.
According toliterature, academics in the early career stage are experiencing a broad range of problems that negatively affect their job satisfaction.Pienaar and Bester (2006) found that one of the problems that academics in the early career stage identified revolves around the performance appraisal system.Their perception is that it is not fair and transparent, that it is discriminative and that it is not applied consistently.They also complained about the lack of opportunities for promotion.This finding is echoed by the research of Oshagbemi (1966) and Gillepsie et al, 2001).Other problems that academics in the early career stage pointed out are role conflict and role overload due to parallel medium teaching, increasing pressure on research outputs, increasing administrative obligations and a shortage of support staff (Pienaar & Bester, 2006).Insufficient financial compensation was also identified as a problem (Pienaar & Bester, 2006;Ball, 2004& Potgieter, 2002).Barkhuizen et al (2004), Oliver et al (2004) and Pienaar and Bester (2006) discovered that academics in the early career stage are dissatisfied with the lack of feedback regarding career progress and developmental areas that they receive.Respondents also indicated that they would appreciate more support and guidance regarding research and research outputs (Pienaar & Bester, 2006).They want more opportunities to work under the guidance of experienced mentors on research projects.
According to, among others, Phillips and Connell (2003), numerous negative organisational outcomes are associated with increased labour turnover.These organisational outcomes include: high direct and indirect financial costs; a decrease in financial sustainability; a decrease in productivity; the rendering of services and standards; interruptions in workflow; a loss of experience and specialist knowledge; an increase in administrative processes; a decline in the organisation's image; an interruption in the internal and informal social liaison and communication channels and an increased feeling of job dissatisfaction among the remaining staff.
Additionally, the retention of academics is made increasingly difficult because an academic career is probably no longer as desirable and attractive as was previously believed.Research done by Anderson et al. (2002) among academics in Australian universities confirms this contention, since 79% and 71% of the respondents respectively believe that the image and status of an academic career are declining.
The fact that an academic career seems to have become less attractive may have far-reaching consequences for higher education institutions and society as a whole, as well as the economy of a country if it is regarded as insignificant and unimportant.According to Phillips and Connell (2003), it is furthermore especially the management responsible for organisations -higher education institutions in this case -who do not pay sufficient attention to this trend.One reason why top management are not addressing this issue sufficiently is that the role-players, as well as the human resource managers of organisations, underestimate the value and gravity thereof, and the reasons for labour turnover are not correctly identified.Another reason is that the solutions which organisations generate do not always suit the reason for the increased labour turnover.Apart from that, no measuring instrument to develop the value of retention is implemented.
One of the primary variables which influences retention is employee satisfaction.According to Landy (1989), McCormick and Ilgen (1985) and Spector (1997), there are various studies which couple low levels of employee satisfaction with increased labour turnover.According to Spector (1997), research by Blau and Newton and Thorton indicates a strong relationship between job dissatisfaction and the intention of leaving an organisation or an employer.This relationship is reflected in Figure 1.
According to Bluedorn, Mobley, Price, Steers and Mowday (Rosser 2004), the single best indicator to determine whether a person is indeed going to leave an organisation or an institution is when the person makes mention thereof or indicates it at one stage or another.Rosser (2004, 319-322) indicates that labour turnover takes place when a person is both dissatisfied with his or her work and when he or she gives indications that he or she is going to leave the institution or organisation.Phillips and Connell (2003) listed a broad range of indicators that could result in lower organisational commitment and higher staff turnover.It is important that employees' need for challenging and meaningful work is satisfied, as well as the needs for autonomy, flexibility and independence.The performance appraisal system and its application should also be fair and valid to ensure that rewards in the form of bonuses, promotions, salary increases and recognition are based on achievement in terms of the criteria that result from the job description.Constructive feedback should be provided to help employees to identify their developmental areas.Employees should get the opportunity to participate in decision-making that concerns them.Organisations should also provide training opportunities to empower employees and to better equip them for their respective jobs.Competitive financial packages are also very important to employees, as well as sufficient time to balance work and life roles.
The above-mentioned internal aspects within organisations which influence retention show numerous similarities with aspects which influence job satisfaction in general, as well as within higher education institutions.Spector (1997, 63) indicates that it is very likely that high levels of dissatisfaction could influence employees to consider alternative job options.In this way employees might, for example, consider alternative employment opportunities, as well as actively start to explore other employment opportunities.Whether an employee or academic will, in such a case, really leave an institution, or should an intention be apparent is, in most cases, determined by alternative opportunities in the labour market (Spector 1997, 63).According to Phillips and Connell (2003,143), job-person fit is another important factor which will determine whether a person will indeed leave the organisation or institution or not (Phillips & Connell 2003, 143).
Labour turnover can be an advantage or a disadvantage for higher education institutions.As already indicated, the disadvantages revolve especially around the costs related to decreased organisational loyalty; the loss of knowledge and experience regarding the institution; and the increase in time and cost in training novice academics.Institutions may, on the other hand, save on the financial remuneration packages of experienced employees by appointing novices at a lower scale (Rosser 2004, 319).It would seem, however, that the disadvantages of increased labour turnover outweigh the advantages.For this reason it is important that organisations should attempt to retain as many employees who consider leaving their current organisations as possible.
Higher education institutions-more than any other organisations -are, however, dependent on the intellectual abilities and commitment of academic staff.The intellectual and creative abilities of academic staff determine the survival and sustainability of higher education institutions (Martin 1999, 24;Pienaar 2005, 292).Consequently, in order to function effectively, higher education institutions are, to a large extent, dependent on the commitment of academics.The objective of this study was to assess the extent to which academics in the early career phase within a South African higher education institution are committed to the specific institution and the impact this has on labour turnover.

Research approach
A longitudinal research approach was used for the purpose of this study to determine whether employees in the early stage of their careers who had considered leaving the institution indeed did so over a period of time.Longitudinal research is the repeated observation and measurement of the same individuals over a period of time.This study consisted of academic personnel who found themselves in the early career phase within a South African higher education institution during October 2004.Round one of the survey took place during October 2004 and the second round almost a year and a half later, during March 2006.

Respondents
The population from which the respondents were chosen consisted of academics who were at that time in the early career phase within a South African higher education institution.Approval and support were obtained from the Director: Operations of the specific higher education institution which was used in this research to approach the academic staff who were representative of the respective gender and cultural groups engaged in the early career phase.A list containing the names, surnames, and dates of birth of all the academic staff employed at that institution during October 2004 was subsequently made available to the researcher by the specific higher education institution.
By virtue of race and gender academics were thereafter divided into the panels as illustrated in Table 1: From Table 1 it seems that the respective panels of respondents consisted of 10 white males, 10 white females, 10 black males and eight black females in the early career phase.
The importance, value and method of this investigation were then emphasised and explained by means of two covering letters which accompanied the questionnaire that was sent to the respective respondents.

Method of data gathering
During October 2004 respondents were requested to respond to one of the following five statements by marking the statement which best described their intention: 1.There is not the slightest possibility that I am going to leave the university.2. There is a slight possibility that I am going to leave the university.3. I am not sure if I am going to leave the university.4.There is a strong possibility that I am going to leave the university.5.I am definitely going to leave the university.

Procedure
During the first round of this questionnaire panellists were given the opportunity to respond to the preceding statements.The questionnaire and the questionnaire instructions were made available in both Afrikaans and English.The target date for returning the first round of the questionnaires was determined to be two weeks after the questionnaires had been given to the panellists.The same applied to academic staff at other centres to which the questionnaires had been sent.All questionnaires were accompanied by a self-addressed envelope in order to facilitate the forwarding of completed questionnaires.
A year and a half later, during April 2006, the same questionnaire was sent to the same respondents in order to determine the following: 1. Whether or not a change had taken place in terms of their initial intention to leave the institution.They also had to provide the reasons for this change, should that be the case.2. Why academics who had indicated that they were going to leave the institution, in other words who had marked statement 4 or 5 during round one, had not yet left the institution and to provide the reasons for this.
The same forwarding procedure as for round one was followed with round two questionnaires.

Results of round one
A response rate of 97.3% was obtained during round one, since one white male respondent did not wish to participate in the study.This response rate assumes that the process which was followed to obtain the data may be regarded as being successful.The results which were obtained during round one are subsequently displayed in Table 2.
The majority of the respondents in each panel indicated that they did not consider leaving the organisation at all or that the possibility that it might happen was very insignificant.A considerable number of respondents were uncertain whether they would leave the organisation.The uncertainty experienced might indicate that they did indeed consider the possibility of leaving the institution.White males had a stronger inclination to leave than the other panels.

Results of round two
A response rate of between 86% and 100% was obtained within the respective panels during round two, since one black female panelist was on long study leave in Britain.Eight panellists, representing 21.6% of the academics in the early career phase had already left the institution since round one.Three of these were white and female; four black and male; and one was a black female participant.
It seems that the pattern concerning white males' intention to stay at the institution or to leave it remained more or less the same during the period of one and a half years.This deduction can be made by comparing the data of Tables 2  and 3.There is, however, a slight movement in the direction of leaving the institution.In the case of white females there is a stronger tendency in the direction of the intention to leave Intentions to quit after round one of the study the organisation.In the case of black men four respondents had already left the organisation, while the pattern for black females remained more or less stable, with the exception of the fact that the group who were unsure had decreased.
It is obvious from Table 4 that insufficient financial remuneration is the most important reason why the respondents in all the respective panels considered leaving the institution.Another allegation which is made -especially black males and females -is that transformation does not take place as desired.
Some of the respondents indicated in round one that they strongly considered leaving the institution, while they never did so.It is evident from Table 5 that a possible explanation for this might be that the alternative options were of such a nature that they did not really offer any deliverance.

DISCUSSION
During round one, 37.8% of the panellists who represented academics during the early career phase were unsure about their future in the institution, while a further 18.9% strongly indicated that they would leave the institution.As opposed to this, 43.3% indicated that there was either a slight or no possibility at all that they would leave the institution.The results of round two are based on the data as obtained from the 28 remaining panellists of the study, since eight panellists had left the institution between rounds one and two and one of the respondents was on long study leave.According to this data, 29% (as opposed to 37.8% during round one) were unsure about their future at the institution, while 35.5% (as opposed to 18.9% during round one) strongly indicated that they were going to leave the institution.Only 35.5% indicated that there was either a slight or no possibility at all that they would leave the institution, as opposed to 43% during round one.

Results according to gender
The data indicates that 42% of the male respondentsduring round one denoted that there was a slight to no possibility that they would indeed leave the institution, but only 26.7% held the same opinion during round two.That is a decrease of 15.3%.
There is virtually no difference in the level of uncertainty where male respondents are concerned during rounds one and two, since 31.6% and 33% of the panellists respectively indicated that they were uncertain whether they would indeed leave the institution.In round one only 26.4% of the male panellists strongly indicated that they would leave the institution; this number increased by 13.6% to 40% in round two.
During round two female respondents provided stronger indications that they would stay at the institution, since 46% as opposed to 38.9% during round one indicated that there was little to no possibility that they would leave the institution.
During round one, more females were uncertain as to whether they would stay at the institution, since the percentages were 44.4% and 23% respectively during rounds one and two.There is, however, a larger percentage of females who indicated strongly during round two that they were going to leave the institution.A figure of 31% was obtained from females in round two as opposed to 16.7% during round one.

Results according to race
In round one 42% of the white academics indicated that there was a slight to no possibility that they were going to leave  Comments of panelists where changes occured between rounds one and two

Comments oF panellists
3 x panelists 4-4 "I am waiting for the right opportunity."-2 x White Male and 1 x White Female 1 x panelist 5-5 "I am in charge of my own business and will make a move when it suits me." -White Male table 5 Comments of panelists who planned to leave the institution during round one, but did not Vol. 6 No. 2 pp.32 -41 SA Tydskrif vir Menslikehulpbronbestuur SA Journal of Human Resource Management http://www.sajhrm.co.za the institution, but only 37.5% held the same opinion during round two.Black academics revealed the same decrease in organisational commitment, since the figure of 38.8% in round one decreased to 33.3% in round two.During round one 31.6% of the white academics were uncertain with regard to their continued commitment to the institution as opposed to 25% in round two.In round one 44.5% of the black panellists indicated that they were uncertain as opposed to only 33% in round two.During round one 16.7% and 26.4% of the black and the white respondents respectively indicated that a strong possibility existed that they would leave the institution.During round two these figures changed to 33.3% and 37.5% respectively for the remaining black and white respondents.
The decrease in organisational commitment is confirmed by the preceding data, since eight of the original 37 panellists who had participated in this research left the institution within a year and a half.Four of the above-mentioned panellists had already indicated that they were uncertain whether they would remain at the institution.Two indicated that a strong possibility existed that they would leave the institution and the remaining two panellists indicated that they were definitely leaving the institution.Four of the eight panellists who left the research group were members of the black male group.Another three were members of the white female group and one was a member of the black female panel.This confirms the theory of Rosser (2004) which indicates that the best single predictor to determine whether an individual will indeed leave an organisation or an institution is when such a person mentions it at some period/stage or another.
According to this research it would, however, seem that if an individual is already uncertain whether he or she is going to remain at the institution, it increases the probability that he or she will leave the institution.None of the eight panellists who have left the institution indicated in round one that there was a slight or no probability that they would remain at the institution.
Of the remaining 28 respondents, 13 made other choices in round two than they had originally done in round one (see Table 4).Panellists were requested to provide reasons for this change in the second questionnaire, should there indeed have been such a change.
The data in Table 4 indicates that most changes were the result of a remuneration structure which did not meet the needs of the panellists or which was not acceptable to that specific group.Koen (2003) alleges that insufficient financial remuneration is also one of the most important reasons why young, competent academics cannot be recruited or retained for higher education in South Africa.This situation is aggravated by the fact that 15% of the academics in South Africa leave the profession annually.In addition, the majority of the professors and associate professors will retire from these institutions within the next decade.Consequently, higher education institutions may in the near future be seriously lacking in well-qualified and experienced academics.Reasons which are provided for this phenomenon are poor financial remuneration, as well as the decrease in the image and status which are associated with an academic career.
The above-mentioned factors are also confirmed by Anderson et al. (2002); Barkhuizen, Rothman and Tytherleigh (2004); Gillespie et al. (2001); Küskü (2003); Oshagbemi (1997); Pienaar (2005), Ssesanga andGarrett (2005), Trotman, Bennett, Scheffler andTulloch (2002), since these researchers also identified financial remuneration as one of the most important factors contributing to academics worldwide, as well as in South Africa, harbouring feelings of job dissatisfaction.Poor financial remuneration does not only contribute to the fact that academics experience job dissatisfaction, but it is also allegedly one of the main reasons -especially according to black academic staff -why they leave higher education institutions (Potgieter, 2002).According to Oshagbemi and Hickson (2003), it is especially the increasing difference between academic staff and their peers in the private sector which is responsible for this group's job dissatisfaction.Joseph (2000) alleges that, in some cases, academics' remuneration is the same or even less than that of graduates who have less experience and fewer qualifications.According to Spector (1997), job dissatisfaction is not only influenced by the level of remuneration, but the perceptual impression that the renumeration is not fair also contributes to this.
One single panellist replied that she would probably leave the institution, but that there were not really other options available.A black panellist indicated that he only had to complete his studies, whereafter he would leave the institution.The lack of real transformation was indicated by a black panellist as the reason for the change in her responses.The preceding responses are confirmed by Pienaar (2005) who undertook a study of academics in the early career phase at the same institution with a view to identifying the career dilemmas of young academics.
The findings of Spector (1997) are also confirmed in this study.According to this model, academics who indicated that they would leave the institution would first consider whether or not alternative options were available before doing so.
During round two there were four panellists who had indicated during round one that a strong possibility existed that they were either considering leaving the institution or would definitely do so.They still felt the same, but had not yet left.Their comments confirm Spector's theory that they were simply waiting for the right opportunity, whereafter they would probably leave the institution (see Table 5).

Conclusions
The results of this study therefore indicate that 66.6% of the white male panellists (as compared to 55.5% during round one); 57% of the white female panellists (as compared to 60% during round one); 83% of the black male panellists (as compared to 60% during round one); and 50% of the black female panellists during round two (the same as during round one) were uncertain whether they would remain at the institution any longer and that, in some cases, a definite or strong possibility existed that they would indeed leave the institution.That, in addition to the eight panellists who had already left the institution, creates a bleak picture for the specific institution.Whereas a mere 18.9% of the panellists indicated during round one that they were going to leave the institution, 35.5% indicated during round two that they did indeed wish to leave the institution.That is an increase of 16.6% in the space of a year and a half.
According to Rosser (2004), labour turnover mainly takes place when an individual is dissatisfied with his or her work.
Although it would appear that there have been numerous positive changes in higher education, according to this study and Martin (1999), the current academic is probably experiencing frustration and disillusionment.The conclusion which was reached is that currently, an academic career is probably developing into one of the most stressful ones and that it no longer enjoys its previous status and prestige.This conclusion is supported by Barkhuizen et al. (2004).Should labour market conditions improve, it will become increasingly difficult to recruit young academics (novices), as well as to retain the current academic corps (cf. the result of this study), since the career dilemmas of academics do not receive the necessary attention.
Should the career obstacles of young academics not be addressed, it may entail a variety of negative outcomes for higher education in general, as well as for this specific higher education institution.One of these is that experienced and wellqualified academics will increasingly leave institutions.

Recommendations
Seen in the light of the aforementioned results and theory as well as the central nature and the role which academics play within the functioning and sustainability of any higher education institution, it is imperative that the leaders who are responsible for the management of these institutions should find ways of addressing the career dilemmas of academic staff.The problems of academics in careers with high levels of job dissatisfaction and work stress should be addressed more proactively and effectively, especially where young academics are concerned.The reason for this is that they are associated with, among others, decreased organisational commitment, decreased mental and physical health, problematic collegial relationships, and a decrease in the quality of work life.Pienaar (2005) feels strongly that, should such problems not be addressed, high quality academics will in all probability increasingly be lost for higher education and its institutions.
If this institution does not take heed of the above and so continues to lose academics,its national and international image and its competitive advantage, as well as the ability to generate new knowledge in a specific field may be adversely affected.This matter influences the sustainability of this institution as well as of South African higher education as a whole.The results obtained after round two of this study indicate the gravity of the matter.While taking all these aspects into account, some of the national priorities which have to receive attention from higher education and higher education institutions are the acquisition and the retention of high calibre academics with specific reference to an improved financial remuneration system.
It is, however, recommended that this study should also be undertaken in other higher education institutions in South Africa and, additionally, that more academics should take part in studies of this kind.

Figure 1 A
Figure 1A model of labour turnover as a function of job satisfaction(Spector 1997, p. 64) 1 x panelist changes from 2-4 "Transformation within the institution does not receive priority and the financial remuneration is poor."-Black Male 2 x panelists change from 2-5 "The financial remuneration is poor and there are limited opportunities for promotion."-White Male "The financial remuneration is poor."-Black Female 1 x panelist changes from 3-5 "The financial remuneration is poor."-White Female 1 x panelist changes from 4-5 "I am only going to complete my studies, then I am going to leave the institution, I have already received an offer."-Black Male 1 x panelist changes from 3-1 "I received a permanent appointment, which makes it easier for me to manage my career within the institution."-Black Male 2 x panelists change from 3-2 "I have started receiving more exposure in my department."-Black Female "I have no other choice."-Black Female table 4