In the ever-evolving landscape of the modern workplace, the concept of telecommuting (TC) has gained a lot of prominence (Bello et al., 2024), lately. Telecommuting, also known as working from home, working remotely or telework, is a method of conducting work away from the employer’s premises on a regular basis using technology (Walentek, 2020). Telecommuting has been steadily growing globally across many sectors with employees having to work in places different from the traditional workplace (Contreras et al., 2020). The recent growth of technology for information and communication has changed how people work and broadened the traditional idea of TC, which used to be limited to specific jobs, temporary situations or unique employees’ circumstances (Domínguez-Amorocho et al., 2023).

This new workplace, unrestrained by geography, time and organisational boundaries, offers flexibility and collaboration to employees (Osiyevskyy et al., 2022). In addition, the flexible working arrangement includes any place other than the traditional office where formal work can happen (Fayomi & Sani, 2022). It is worth observing that post the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, organisations that adopted TC and transformation in the workplace managed to survive, unlike those that did not and had to cease their operations (Reidhead, 2022). One crucial aspect of this transformation is the potential influence of TC on the relationship between employee engagement (EE), its dimensions and employee performance (EP), which this study seeks to investigate.

Employee engagement has long been recognised, in traditional work environments, as a critical factor in organisational success, with previous research linking it to improved productivity, customer satisfaction and financial performance (Byrne, 2022; Shettigar & Shiva Shankar, 2021). The multidimensional nature of EE, encompassing physical, cognitive and emotional dimensions, suggests that the various facets may have differential impacts on employee outcomes (Davis & Van Der Heijden, 2023; Yagil & Oren, 2021).

Employee performance, commonly defined as the behaviour exhibited by an employee while performing a particular task assigned by the employer, is related to the deliverables in an organisation (Kalogiannidis, 2020). In essence, EP entails an individual’s behaviour in a particular situation, in order to achieve the desired results (Khtatbeh et al., 2020). Consequently, EP can either have positive or negative outcomes (Sitopu, Sitinjak & Marpaung, 2021). Whatever the case may be, clearly, EP reflects a quality organisation (Sugiarti et al., 2021), and as a result, an organisation can be considered effective if EP meets the company’s targets (Fidyah & Setiawati, 2020).

In the contemporary workplace, organisations have become more considerate of TC, as they strive to enhance productivity, reduce office space and improve the quality of work (Coelho et al., 2020). This possibly stems from a conviction that TC gives employees the autonomy to decide on how to work, while collaterally boosting the creative and innovative activities of employees (Sarbu, 2022). This is important because in a traditional office setting, work and personal life can be segregated, but in the virtual work environment, the spatial and temporal differences seem to disappear, sometimes leading to overworking and after hours work for many employees (Ganguly et al., 2022).

In contrast to traditional office models, recourse to TC however means a reduction in face-to-face communication with colleagues, and consequently, when problems arise at work, they may be difficult to solve (Chen, 2021) as employees are isolated. In addition, working virtually may be attended by technological challenges, heavy workloads and diminished relationships with colleagues, which may cause substantial stress for employees (Graves & Karabayeva, 2020).

In the specific case of South Africa, these challenges are exacerbated by electricity outages (loadshedding) that adversely affect employee productivity and morale (Steenkamp et al., 2016). Given that for employees to TC, they need a stable Internet connection and power, loadshedding makes working virtually less viable (Sucheran & Olanrewaju, 2021).

Considering the growing prevalence of TC, this study sets out to investigate the potential mediating role that TC could have on the relationships that the independent variables of EE and its sub-dimensions of physical engagement (PhyEng), cognitive engagement (CogEng) and emotional engagement (EmoEng) may have with the dependent variable of EP.

With the fast-changing world of work, managers must ensure that their employees are engaged and empowered to perform (Darvishmotevali & Altinay, 2022) in a virtual frontier (VF) where TC has become quite popular. This is despite the contention of Contreras et al. (2020) that TC remains a subject of debate owing to its ability to blur the lines between work and non-work spheres, as well as the benefits and drawbacks that characterise flexible work schedules. Notably, TC employees exhibiting disengagement manifest deficiencies in customer service, display a dearth of commitment and deliver subpar performance (Bin & Shmailan, 2015). As work has undergone significant changes, it has become a common phenomenon for organisations to have frequent virtual meetings and conferences, especially in developed nations (Chidambaram et al., 2024). These changes may affect the employees, for example, difficulty concentrating on work or lack of energy to devote to work, ultimately leading to lower work engagement (Ma et al., 2023). As a result, TC has therefore been linked with lower work engagement (Wang et al., 2023). Nonetheless, when employees, including telecommuters, feel engaged, they are motivated to participate actively in their tasks (Rubianto & Kembaren, 2023).

However, it is also plausible as observed by Chaudhary et al. (2022) as well as Butoi and Ștefănuț (2022) that TC does not influence the relationship between EE and EP. In harmony with this view, Park and Jae (2022) observe that the impact of work factors on job performance is not mediated by TC. Contrastingly, a study by Kapoor et al. (2021) reports that TC partially mediates the association between perceived stress and psychological well-being. Furthermore, in a study conducted on 405 employees who work in a technology services company in the United States, Golden and Eddleston (2020) report that TC can be considered as a contextual factor that may interact with EE. These assertions emphasise a lack of consensus in extant literature as it pertains to the exact nature of the role of TC in the relationships between work factors and work outcomes.

This notwithstanding, TC can enhance or diminish the effects of other variables, depending on the context and the outcome of interest (Shabanpour et al., 2018). Arguably, this may, partially, be the reason why some scholars have touted TC as a mediating variable (Schall, 2019). In their study, Lopes et al. (2023) conclude that involuntariness in telework (sometimes used interchangeably with TC) contributed to a decrease in work engagement and an increase in workers’ exhaustion, thereby confirming a possible mediating role of TC. According to Allen et al. (2015), TC may increase individual employees’ productivity but hamper the development and maintenance of quality co-worker relationships. Curiously, the study undertaken by Vander Elst et al. (2017) among 878 employees from an international telecommunication company in Belgium found no interfering role of TC in the relationship between emotional exhaustion and cognitive stress complaints.

This notwithstanding, Moffa (2023) notes that TC can influence how leadership style affects employee satisfaction. On this score, the contention seems to be as hinted by Wojcak et al. (2016) that different types of leadership may be more-or-less effective for telecommuters than for office workers. Telecommuting is also likely to interfere with the association between work-related attitudes and behaviours, such as job satisfaction and organisational commitment (Dahlstrom, 2013). Furthermore, according to Nicklin et al. (2016), TC affects how organisational outcomes such as commitment, turnover and performance relate to each other. Moreover, Elldér’s (2017) study that relied on data obtained from the Swedish National Travel Survey collected from 7392 respondents concluded that TC weakens the association between urban structure and travel patterns.

The findings in extant literature as it concerns the possible intervening role that TC plays in the relationships between different factors and outcomes in the workplace are clearly mixed. While this provides a compelling basis to anticipate that TC might act as an intermediary in the relationship between EE and EP, as well as EE dimensions (PhyEng, CogEng, EmoEng), and EP, the exact nature of the interference remains unknown. Accordingly, this study aims to contribute towards the comprehension of the intricate interplay between these constructs, in the presence of TC, within the context of the ICT sector in South Africa. Duly cognisant of the different positions advanced by scholars with respect to the possible intervening role of TC in work-related relationships, the study is swayed to hypothesise that in the VF:

These hypotheses that have been formulated for this study are illustrated in a conceptual framework as shown in Figure 1.

The study adopted a quantitative research approach to examine the mediating effect of TC on the relationship between EE and EP, as well as the relationship between EE dimensions (PhyEng, CogEng and EmoEng) and EP. This study was underpinned by a positivist philosophy, which emphasises the objective and observable aspects of reality. Adhering to a deductive reasoning approach, the hypotheses were formulated based on the existing theoretical principles with the objective of testing the hypotheses, through the collection and analysis of empirical evidence. Specifically, a survey strategy was employed within the framework of a cross-sectional time horizon. This allowed this study to gather quantitative information at a single point in time from a sample of employees working in the South African ICT sector.

Ethical clearance to conduct this study was obtained from the University of Pretoria, Research Ethics Committee (Reference No. EMS019/23). Consent was sought from the participants through an informed letter of consent to advise respondents on the purpose of the study and guidelines for participation. Respondents were advised of confidentiality and anonymity and that their responses will remain anonymous because they cannot be individually identified based on the answers they provided. The study made no use of any form of incentives to induce responses from participants. Through this process, adequate efforts were made to adhere and uphold ethical research considerations.

Before conducting mediating effects analysis, correlation analysis was performed to determine the relationship between EE, its dimensions, TC and EP. The correlation analysis results are shown in Table 3.

The correlation coefficients between PhyEng and CogEng (r = 0.807, p < 0.01), PhyEng and EmoEng (r = 0.791, p < 0.01) and CogEng and EmoEng (r = 0.760, p < 0.01) from Table 3 indicate that the first-order elements of EE have high positive connections. Based on the data acquired from employees in the ICT sector of South Africa, there is a significant positive association between PhyEng, CogEng and EmoEng. This suggests that when one of these elements, such as CogEng, grows or decreases, the other components, EmoEng and PhyEng, also change in the same direction. Considering that these parameters serve as markers of a second-order reflective construct, the significant positive correlations further validate the high reflection of the constructs on EE.

The correlations between the independent variables of EE and PhyEng (r = 0.925, p < 0.01), EE and CogEng (r = 0.889, p < 0.01), and EE and EmoEng (r = 0.950, p < 0.01) indicate a highly significant and strong relationship between the second-order reflective construct and the first-order factors, suggesting a strong interrelation between these factors. The findings in Table 3 suggest that EmoEng has the most significant correlation with EE, followed by PhyEng, and finally CogEng. These results align with the EE second-order estimation, which reveals that EmoEng has the most impact on the EE reflective construct. The findings of this study align with the findings of Pepra-Mensah and Kyeremeh (2018), which suggest that the aspects of PhyEng, CogEng and EmoEng best represent the concept of EE.

The findings presented in Table 3 demonstrate a significant and positive correlation (r = 0.722, p < 0.01) between EE and EP, suggesting a clear relationship between these two variables among the personnel surveyed in the South African ICT sector. The findings of this study are in direct opposition to those of Riyanto et al. (2021) about ICT personnel in Indonesia who found no direct correlation between EE and EP; however, this study’s analysis demonstrates otherwise.

This study found a strong positive correlation (r = 0.717, p < 0.01) between PhyEng and EP, indicating a significant relationship. EmoEng and EP also showed a moderate positive correlation (r = 0.667, p < 0.01), while CogEng and EP had a similar moderate positive correlation (r = 0.642, p < 0.01). The results indicate that PhyEng has a significantly greater correlation with EP compared to the other dimensions of EE. The findings of this study, which focused on a sample of employees in the South African ICT sector, align with previous research conducted by Kuok and Taormina (2017) as well as Črnjar et al. (2020). These studies have confirmed that EE, a construct with three dimensions, has a significant impact on an employee’s work performance.

Furthermore, the correlation coefficient of 0.382 suggests a low level of association between EE and TC. The results indicate that there is a modest association between the EE dimensions and TC. Specifically, the correlation coefficients for PhyEng and TC, CogEng and TC, and EmoEng and TC are 0.366, 0.319 and 0.365, respectively, all with a significance level of p < 0.01. Regarding EP and TC, there was a modest correlation (r = 0.346, p < 0.01) indicating a positive association between TC and EP. Upon examining the correlation results displayed in Table 3, it is evident that there are linear positive correlations between the main components of this study.

This study assessed the mediating effects of TC on the relationship between EE, its dimensions, and EP through the SEM bootstrapping procedure. To conduct SEM mediation analysis, two path diagrams were formulated, with the first path diagram (Figure 2) detailing the mediating effect of TC on the relationship between EE and EP.

The second path diagram (Figure 3) depicts the mediating effect of TC on the nexus between PhyEng, CogEng, EmoEng and EP.

The mediation evaluation results attained through SEM path analysis as indicated in Figure 2 and Figure 3 could not reflect the indirect effects of TC. The results, as tabulated in Table 4, outline the direct effects, indirect effects and the values of asymptotic confidence intervals, comprising the lower (LLCI) and upper (ULCI) bounds of these asymptotic confidence intervals.

The results presented in Table 4 reveal that in the presence of TC as a mediating variable, EE exerts a positive but statistically insignificant indirect effect on EP (β = 0.019, p = 0.173, CI [0.009, 0047]). Collaterally, in the same context, the direct effect of EE on EP was found to be positive and statistically significant (β = 0.755, p < 0.001). These results highlight that in the presence of TC, a direct only non-mediation relationship exists between EE and EP. Consequently, H1 which posits that TC has a mediating effect on the relationship between EE and EP is not statistically supported.

Furthermore, the results indicate that in the presence of TC as a mediating variable, the indirect effect of PhyEng on EP was statistically insignificant (β = 0.017, p = 0.145 CI [–0.010, 0.211]), whereas the direct effect was statistically significant (β = 1.065, p < 0.001). These results imply that in the presence of TC, a direct only non-mediation relationship exists between PhyEng and EP. Consequently, H2 which states that TC mediates the relationship between PhyEng and EP was not statistically supported.

The results further indicate that CogEng has a statistically insignificant positive indirect effect on EP (β = 0.005, p = 0.406), in the presence of TC as a mediating variable. Similarly, in comparison, the direct effect of CogEng on EP was also found to be statistically insignificant (β = 0.119, p = 0.544, CI [-0.124, 0.015]). Consequently, the results support a no effect non-mediation relationship between CogEng and EP in the face of TC as a mediating variable. Therefore, H3 which proposed that TC has a mediating effect on the relationship between CogEng and EP was not statistically supported.

As the mediating results relate to EmoEng and EP, the findings from the analysis show statistical significance of the direct effect (β = 0.210, p = 0.044, CI [–0.002, 0.054]) and statistical insignificance of the indirect effect (β = 0.008, p = 0.155) with TC as a mediating variable. These results indicate the existence of a direct effect non-mediation relationship between EmoEng and EP. Consequently, H4 which proposes that TC mediates the relationship between EmoEng and EP was not statistically supported. These results compel the study to conclude that TC has no mediating effects on the relationships that exist between EE, its dimensions (PhyEng, CogEng and EmoEng) and EP.

This study drew on existing literature to elucidate the mediating role that TC plays in some work-based relationships. However, the findings of the study show that in the cohort of ICT employees in South Africa that participated in the study, the expected mediation effects of TC could not be empirically confirmed. Conclusively, H1, H2, H3 and H4 were not statistically supported, confirming that TC has no mediating effects on the relationship between EE, its dimensions and EP. These results are curious yet insightful. They possibly stem from the reality of the technical nature of ICT work that characteristically requires a level of collaboration and hands-on interaction, which are not easily facilitated through remote arrangements. As a result of this, the anticipated effects of TC on EE, its dimensions and subsequently EP could have become diluted. This underscores the complex interplay between work arrangements, EE and its dimensions, and EP outcomes in contemporary organisational contexts, particularly within technology-intensive sectors. Instructively, this study’s results highlight the complex nature of aligning work practices with engagement levels and their subsequent impact on overall performance in environments heavily reliant on technology and innovation.

With organisations progressively re-integrating employees into office environments, the culture in some organisations in the South African ICT sector that value face-to-face collaboration makes TC less effective in fostering EE and influencing EP outcomes. This dynamic can have distinct practical implications for different gender and age biographical groups. For example, younger employees and those with fewer family responsibilities might adapt more readily to a return to in-office work, whereas older employees or those with significant caregiving responsibilities may find TC more beneficial. Similarly, gender-related expectations and roles could influence how male and female employees experience and respond to the shift from TC to in-office work, potentially affecting their engagement and performance differently. More so, the limitations of virtual communication platforms in conveying the complexity of emotional expressions and the potential challenges in creating and maintaining emotional bonds remotely pose a diminishing mediating role of TC. To be sure, based on this study’s results, TC is not an intermediary in the workplace; rather, it is a form of employee behaviour that could strengthen or weaken existing relationships in the workplace. Essentially, therefore, the relationships between EE, its dimensions and EP in the South African ICT sector may be influenced by both external and internal factors other than TC. Within high-technology sectors, the dynamic interplay between TC arrangements, EE and EP becomes particularly nuanced. Considering that the technical nature of ICT roles often demands a high degree of collaboration, problem-solving and interactive teamwork, these can be challenging to replicate in virtual settings. This underscores the importance of designing tailored strategies that account for the unique demands of these roles, aiming to optimise both EE and EP outcomes in the VF.

This study has some limitations that should be recognised to inform future research. This study was conducted in South Africa, and it is unclear whether it applies to other countries. Consequently, the TC mediation model should be tested in different cultural contexts and countries. Given the uncertainty of an epidemic and people’s adaptability to changes over time, the impact of the length of time spent on TC could affect results. This aspect could be addressed through a longitudinal study in future studies. Given that this study focused on the mediating role of TC on the relationship between EE and EP as well as EE dimensions and EP; to further advance the understanding of these concepts, future studies could investigate the moderating effect of TC and conduct comparative analyses with other regions or industries with the end objective of informing strategies to optimise remote work practices in the VF. Given the heightened state of global competitiveness, organisations are forced to meet the challenges of employees and ensure that they are engaged to perform optimally in the dynamic, virtual and competitive business environment. So, organisations should revisit their TC policies, explore alternative ways to foster EE and focus on managing the results.