Prior to the COVID-19 outbreak and subsequent campus closures, South Africa’s higher education sector was already facing significant challenges, with reports characterising it as being in a state of crisis (Czerniewicz, 2020). In response to lockdown measures, South African tertiary institutions were compelled to rapidly reassess their teaching and learning approaches to adhere to social distancing guidelines. This led to the implementation of remote and online teaching methods in an urgent effort to complete various curricula and salvage the academic year (Adotey, 2020; Dipa, 2020).

University academics facilitate a crucial role in delivering quality education for sustainable development in Africa (Igbafe, 2020). The reliance on academics’ creativity, empathy and judgement is particularly pronounced, especially during the COVID-19 pandemic. Academics find themselves grappling with personal stress, adapting to constant change and uncertainty and endeavouring to maintain equitable quality teaching while also supporting anxious students (Freshwater, 2020). Consequently, the challenges posed by COVID-19 not only exert significant strain on academics’ professional lives but also affect their personal lives. Qiu et al. (2020) underscore the profound impact of COVID-19, which induced fear, insecurity, uncertainty and the loss of relationships and lifestyle changes on emotional well-being, further emphasising the need for targeted support mechanisms within higher education institutions.

According to Niekerk and Gent (2021), the emotional well-being of university employees is often overlooked and is exacerbated by the challenges brought about by the pandemic. Additionally, factors such as excessive workloads, job insecurity for those on employment contracts, rapid adaptation to virtual platforms, changes in teaching styles because of virtual platforms, blurred boundaries between work and home life, acceptance of the new work reality, social disconnection from students and increased administrative responsibilities have continued to burden academics (Kriel et al., 2020; Phakeng, 2020). Research indicates that reactions to COVID-19 have elicited a spectrum of distressing emotions, including fear, anxiety and sadness, all of which are associated with a heightened risk of ill-health and have a negative influence on emotional well-being (Niekerk & Gent, 2021; Qiu et al., 2020). Consequently, the core components of emotional intelligence become particularly crucial for individuals to navigate challenging situations, thereby underscoring the significance of emotional intelligence, especially during crises such as the COVID-19 outbreak (Drigas & Papoutsi, 2020).

The ramifications caused by COVID-19 are impacting commitment and undermining the overall strategy towards suitability by reducing progress towards reaching the 17 SDGs and modifying the development trajectory (Shulla et al., 2021). Walker and Salt (2012) contend that after the SDGs are accomplished, people and societies will be more resilient to crises when they occur. Heggen et al. (2020) echo that the worldwide recession triggered by the COVID-19 response is concerning, prompting researchers to debate whether the SDGs are appropriate for the post-pandemic era. As a result, there is a need for emotional intelligence awareness; hence, emotional intelligence must be incorporated into the SDG recovery plan for fostering emotional well-being to advance SDG 3.

The United Nations (2019) asserts that emotional intelligence will be instrumental in achieving the SDGs by 2030. Emotional intelligence will aid countries in preventing conflict and facilitating post-conflict healing, fostering closer community collaboration, enhancing interpersonal relationships, promoting environmental care and encouraging better global citizenship (United Nations, 2019). The reshaping of the SDGs by COVID-19 indicates that transforming a crisis into an opportunity to learn about emotional intelligence is vital for implementing the SDGs and promoting emotional well-being post-COVID-19 (Estrada et al., 2021). Research indicates that high emotional intelligence helps in the adaptive regulation of distressing emotions, which in turn supports the effective management of daily stressors and challenges (Drigas & Papoutsi, 2020). Additionally, the UN Academic Impact conference highlighted the importance of harnessing emotional intelligence to meet the SDGs, demonstrating how these skills can be used to achieve SDG goals, recover from trauma and incorporate the SDGs into daily life to enhance overall well-being (Banerjee, 2019).

Research demonstrates a strong, positive correlation between emotional intelligence and various aspects of emotional well-being. These include reduced psychological symptoms, better physical health, lower levels of emotional distress, higher life satisfaction, increased self-esteem, stronger social support and enhanced creative thinking (Maharaj & Ramsaroop, 2022; Peláez-Fernández et al., 2021). Mayer and Salovey (1990), Daniel Goleman (1998) and Reuven Bar-On (2012) have all made notable contributions to the understanding of emotional intelligence.

Mayer and Salovey (1990) define emotional intelligence as the capacity to observe and understand one’s own and other’s emotions, to recognise and harness emotions to facilitate thinking, to comprehend emotions and to regulate emotions thoughtfully by fostering both emotional and intellectual developments. Goleman (1998) views emotional intelligence as the ability to recognise one’s own emotions and those of others, to self-motivate and to manage emotions effectively to benefit personal well-being and relationships. In contrast, Bar-On (2012) conceptualises emotional intelligence as a set of non-cognitive skills, competencies and abilities that impact an individual’s ability to successfully navigate environmental demands and pressures.

The appraisal, regulation and utilisation of emotions are fundamental components of emotional intelligence and play crucial roles in personal and social functioning (Mayer & Salovey, 1990). Appraisal involves the ability to accurately perceive and understand one’s own emotions and those of others, as well as to recognise how emotions shape thoughts and behaviour (Mayer & Salovey, 1990). Effective regulation of emotions entails the ability to manage and control one’s emotional responses, including coping with stress, regulating mood and adapting to various situations (Mayer & Salovey, 1990). Additionally, the utilisation of emotions involves harnessing emotional information to facilitate problem-solving, decision-making and interpersonal interactions (Mayer & Salovey, 1990). These three aspects of emotional intelligence are interrelated and essential for adaptive functioning in diverse contexts, from relationships to the workplace. Understanding and developing skills in appraisal, regulation and utilisation of emotions contribute to enhanced emotional well-being and success in various domains of life (Maharaj & Ramsaroop, 2022).

The World Economic Forum’s Future of Jobs Report (2020) places emotional intelligence among the top 15 skills expected to be in high demand from 2025 onwards. The study notes that the numerous challenges brought on by COVID-19 triggered distressing emotions like fear and anxiety, which negatively impacted academics’ overall well-being. These challenges are attributed to a lack of resources to adapt to new circumstances, indicating generally low levels of emotional intelligence among academics (MacIntyre et al., 2020; Smit & Serfontein, 2020). In response to these challenges, academics are still in the process of developing their emotional intelligence, which is fortunately a teachable skill that can help academics manage stress and adversity more effectively. Academics with lower emotional intelligence may struggle to recognise and understand their emotions, making it difficult to identify their emotional state, which in turn impairs academics’ ability to manage perceived stress (Sadovyy et al., 2021).

The ability to develop pleasant emotions, moods, thoughts and feelings, as well as adapt when faced with adversity and difficult conditions, is referred to as emotional well-being (Choi, 2020). Alqahtani et al. (2022) observed an increased rate of stress and anxiety as it was emphasised that the effect of COVID-19 harmed people’s emotional well-being. The research argues that the emotional well-being of university staff members is often neglected and exacerbated by COVID-19. Niekerk and Gent (2021) echo these sentiments. Elevated anxiety was caused by emotions of susceptibility to the infection, interruptions in routines, uncertainty about job and income, and concerns about the safety and well-being of loved ones (Chew et al., 2020). Stress was increased by prolonged quarantine, fear of infection, frustration, boredom, inadequate information and supplies, financial loss and stigma (Visser & Van Wyk, 2021). Research indicates that COVID-19 elicited stress in academics because of deadlines, disruptions and higher workload, with concerns related to work, family and self (Idris et al., 2021).

Evidence of the influence on the emotional well-being of academics appeared to show a change from work-related stress to anxiety as the primary concern among staff members (Niekerk & Gent, 2021). This is because academics’ competence and skills to deliver teaching in the contemporary setting (online) are a major contribution to their elevated anxiety levels (Alliance for African Partnership, 2020). Other challenges were a lack of visible feedback or interaction with students, Zoom fatigue and how to deal with blurred boundaries between their professional and domestic lives while teaching from home with personal health issues, as well as those with children or elderly care responsibilities (Gruber et al., 2021). In a positive light, studies demonstrate that academics reported decreased levels of anxiety, stress and loneliness because of their strong relationship with their family and enhanced spirituality, which aided in positive emotional well-being to cope with adversity (González et al., 2020; Idris et al., 2021). There has been growing concern about the adverse influence that the environment of higher education institutions has on the emotional well-being of academics, who have shown high levels of stress, burnout and low levels of well-being (Garcia, 2020).

Human resource management (HRM) is the strategic approach to managing an organisation’s workforce, focussing on optimising employee performance and well-being to achieve organisational objectives (Mathis & Jackson, 2019). The COVID-19 prompted human resources (HR) to rethink their roles in adapting their practices to the new normal (Lews, 2020). The key strategic directions for HR during the pandemic crisis were redesigning organisational policies, providing safety training and addressing workplace stress (Gigauri, 2020). Another important HR challenge would be ‘What does the future of work look like?’. The necessity for the 4IR has been expedited by COVID-19, and this will transform how everyone works and interacts with one another in conjunction with technology, thus requiring everyone to reconnect with their emotional intelligence. Consequently, the need for remote working would raise the demand for automation and collaboration technologies, as well as accelerate the migration to cloud computing (Raj, 2020).

It is essential for HR to ensure that academics are satisfied with their jobs and that their home is a substitute for the workplace. In the context of COVID-19 and higher education, HR is responsible for motivating, inspiring, training and developing employees, as well as standardising the use of technology to enable efficient work and managing work relationships in response to changing circumstances (Kaushik & Guleria, 2020). The most cited HR challenges during COVID-19 were employee well-being, employee engagement, remote work and communication (Irshad et al., 2021; Zhong et al., 2021).

The COVID-19 findings in the University of KwaZulu-Natal (UKZN) context reveal that work-life integration is a significant challenge for academics because of inadequate organisational support (Pillay et al., 2021). Other UKZN academic challenges included a rise in emotional distress with neglect of internal wellness programmes tailor-made to academics’ needs, no internal psychological support provided during the overnight switch to emergency remote teaching and no dissemination of a survey for staff in relation to their requirements. Many demands were made on staff with no acknowledgement of the variety of obstacles that staff encountered while working from home with the utilisation of their resources for completing the semester (Pillay et al., 2021).

The pandemic highlights the important role HR must perform to provide support to academics as a critical stakeholder in higher education. The study argues that the quality of HR practices was showcased during the pandemic revealing weaknesses. This is supported by Nutsubidze and Schmidt (2021) who argue that HR managers had to rethink their role as they adjusted to the new work environment. Evolved HR practices presently intend to produce responsibility, flexibility, creativity, autonomy and participation in production (Kutieshat & Farmanesh, 2022).

Ethical clearance to conduct this study was obtained from the Humanities and Social Sciences Research Ethics Committee at the University of Kwazulu-Natal (reference no.: HSSREC//00004468/2022).

The study aims to address the following research questions:

The study seeks to accomplish the following objectives:

A quantitative research approach was employed, focussing on university academics (junior lecturers, lecturers, senior lecturers, associate professors and professors) from five campus sites at the UKZN. Participants were selected through stratified random sampling. Out of the total population of 1226 university academics, a sample of 370 was drawn, as outlined in the sample table by Sekaran and Bougie (2016). The sample was predominantly female (62.5%) and largely Indian (33.9%). Most respondents were between the ages of 30 and 39 years, with 48.6% being married, 65% holding a doctoral degree and 51.4% having more than 10 years of service.

The power value was calculated using the sample size, effect size and significance level. Given the significant findings and the high explanatory power of the regression model, it is reasonable to infer that the power value is high, likely exceeding the acceptable threshold of 0.80. This indicates a strong likelihood that the study effectively detected the true relationships among the variables. The power calculation (Equation 1) is as follows: Effect size (f2)=R21−R2=0.972311−0.97231=35.05[Eqn 1] where the number of predictors (k) is 2; the significance level (α) is 0.05 and the power (1 - β) is 0.9.

The study employed both close-ended and open-ended online questionnaires. Participants’ biographical data were collected using nominal and ordinal scales. Emotional intelligence was assessed using the Schutte Self-Report Emotional Intelligence Test on a five-point Likert scale (Schutte et al., 2009). This test consists of 15 self-report items divided into three sub-scales: appraisal of emotions (five items – ‘I know why my emotions change’), regulation of emotions (five items – ‘I seek out activities that make me happy’) and utilisation of emotions (five items – ‘I am aware of the non-verbal messages other people send’).

Emotional well-being was measured using Depression, Anxiety and Stress Scales-21 by Lovibond and Lovibond (1995), with self-developed questions on a five-point Likert Scale. There are 15 items measuring three sub-scales: stress (five items – ‘The changes at work impact my work-life balance’), anxiety (five items – ‘I experience the emotion of fear during COVID-19’) and HR (five items – ‘Initiatives from human resource management positively influence my emotional well-being’).

The study applied both descriptive and inferential statistics. Frequencies and percentages were used to analyse biographical data. Measures of central tendency helped interpret the characteristics of the sample, while measures of dispersion assessed the spread of the data. The Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy was above 0.500, and Bartlett’s test of sphericity had a significance value below 0.05, confirming that all conditions for factor analysis were met. To analyse the data from open-ended questions on emotional intelligence and emotional well-being, thematic analysis was used to identify and develop key themes. Initially, the data were reviewed to familiarise with its content, followed by coding responses into relevant categories. The frequency of each theme was calculated to determine its prevalence or significance among the respondents.

The two key components of precision are reliability and validity. Reliability is determined by taking multiple measurements from the same subjects. A reliability coefficient of 0.70 or above is regarded as ‘acceptable’ for a newly developed construct. Table 1 presents the Cronbach’s coefficient alpha score for all the individual items that made up the questionnaire. Additionally, open-ended questions measured the role of HR and coping techniques which consisted of ‘What supportive role did HR facilitate during COVID-19?’ and ‘Name one significant coping technique you utilised for helping you manage your distressing emotions’.

The reliability scores for all sections exceed the recommended Cronbach’s alpha value. This indicates a degree of acceptable, consistent scoring for these sections of the research.

The COVID-19 presented significant emotional challenges for academics, underscoring the relevance of emotional intelligence in managing adversity. Mayer and Salovey’s (1990) ability model of emotional intelligence, which includes appraisal, regulation and utilisation of emotions, offers a robust framework for understanding how these dimensions contribute to emotional well-being.

A binomial test with a cut-off of 3.0 was conducted to assess whether the scoring patterns for each statement differed significantly by option. The null hypothesis posited that the number of respondents who agreed was similar to those who disagreed. The ability to appraise emotions involves recognising and understanding one’s own and others’ emotional states. Table 2 displays a strong level of agreement among respondents regarding the appraisal of emotions, with a mean score of m = 3.54, indicating that academics are adept at identifying and predicting their emotional responses to various events. For instance:

The results highlight the role of appraisal of emotion in fostering resilience and adaptability, which are crucial for managing the stressors associated with the pandemic. A study by Miao et al. (2020) highlights that emotional appraisal skills, such as recognising and accurately interpreting emotions, are foundational to effective emotion management and coping strategies. This capability enables individuals to foresee emotional responses and prepare mentally for stressors, thereby enhancing resilience. Additionally, Joseph and Newman (2020) found that individuals with high emotional appraisal abilities tend to exhibit better problem-solving skills and decision-making capabilities, especially in high-stress environments like the pandemic, as they can navigate complex emotional landscapes effectively.

Emotional regulation pertains to managing and responding to emotional experiences effectively. The mean score for emotional regulation is m = 3.45, indicating that academics generally feel competent in this area. Key findings include:

Effective emotional regulation is essential for mitigating the negative impacts of stress and enhancing overall well-being during adversity. Cabello et al. (2020) demonstrated that emotional regulation is critical in reducing burnout and enhancing emotional well-being among professionals, particularly during the pandemic. Empathy, specifically, has been linked to improved social connections and reduced feelings of isolation, further buffering against stress. A meta-analysis by Gross et al. (2020) confirmed that emotional regulation strategies, such as cognitive reappraisal and mindfulness, have a substantial impact on reducing anxiety and depression symptoms, reinforcing the value of emotional regulation in maintaining mental health during crises.

Utilisation of emotions involves harnessing emotional experiences to guide thoughts and actions. Academics showed a strong agreement with m = 3.58 in utilising emotions constructively:

The dimension of the utilisation of emotions under emotional intelligence helps academics apply their emotional insights to improve interpersonal interactions and adapt their strategies for dealing with challenges. A study by Petrides et al. (2020) underscores the importance of emotional utilisation in academic settings, as it facilitates better teamwork and collaboration. The ability to use emotions constructively allows individuals to adapt their strategies and maintain motivation, even in uncertain and challenging situations. Furthermore, research by MacCann et al. (2020) found that those with higher emotional intelligence scores, particularly in utilising emotions, are more adept at recognising non-verbal cues and adjusting their communication styles, which is crucial for effective remote work and teaching.

The results reinforce the importance of emotional intelligence as outlined in Mayer and Salovey’s ability model (1990). By effectively appraising, regulating and utilising emotions, academics can better navigate the emotional turbulence induced by the COVID-19 pandemic (Hölling, 2019). These abilities contribute to firstly enhanced decision-making whereby academics who are skilled in emotional intelligence can make more informed decisions, improving their effectiveness and job satisfaction (Sutte, 2019). According to Fernandez-Berrocal et al. (2020), individuals who can effectively regulate and utilise their emotions tend to make more balanced decisions, showing resilience in the face of ambiguity and change. This skill set is particularly beneficial in navigating the unpredictable circumstances brought on by the pandemic. Schutte et al. (2020) further argued that emotional intelligence serves as a protective factor against the psychological impacts of stress. It enhances one’s ability to bounce back from setbacks, contributing to long-term well-being and job satisfaction among educators.

Secondly, resilience and well-being are enhanced by emotional intelligence, which serves as a protector against stress, promoting resilience and mitigating the physiological and psychological impacts of stress (Sadovyy et al., 2021). A study by Vink et al. (2020) highlights that organisations that promote emotional intelligence training and support systems, such as workshops and coaching, enhance employees’ abilities to cope with stressors. This organisational approach fosters a culture of resilience, aiding in the overall mental health and well-being of employees during crises like COVID-19.

The appraisal, regulation and utilisation of emotions are pivotal components of emotional intelligence that significantly contribute to academics’ emotional well-being during adversity. By fostering these abilities, educational institutions can help academics navigate challenges more effectively, ultimately enhancing their resilience and overall performance during difficult times.

The COVID-19 pandemic has significantly disrupted the emotional well-being of academics, with heightened levels of stress and anxiety being prominent concerns. According to the National Institute of Health (2021), strong emotional well-being is often marked by fewer distressing emotions and greater resilience in facing challenges. However, life disruptions, such as those caused by the pandemic, can heighten stress and anxiety, leading to adverse effects on emotional well-being (Melkonian, 2021). Hamouche (2021) examined the psychological impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on employees in higher education, finding that uncertainties related to job security, workload and changes in work dynamics led to increased anxiety, stress and burnout. Browning et al. (2020) reported similar findings, showing that the pandemic significantly impacted the mental health of university staff and students, with increased reports of anxiety, depression and stress because of concerns about personal health, job security and well-being of family members.

Stress and anxiety among academics during the pandemic were exacerbated by several factors. Academics faced increased concerns about infection risk, disruptions to established routines, uncertainties regarding job security and income, and worries about the safety of loved ones (Chew et al., 2020). These factors have been associated with elevated stress levels, including prolonged quarantine, fear of infection, frustration and financial instability (Visser & Van Wyk, 2021). Mheidly et al. (2022) noted that academics continue to face increased stress because of the transition to online learning environments, coupled with the added burden of maintaining research productivity and managing personal life challenges. Padilla-Díaz et al. (2022) found that academic professionals reported high levels of anxiety because of job insecurity, uncertainty about career progression and challenges in maintaining work-life balance, especially among early-career researchers.

Table 3 highlights the intensity of these stressors. For instance, respondents reported significant increases in stress related to changes in their work environment, with high levels of agreement on statements regarding work-life balance disruptions and difficulties in unwinding because of stress. Chi-square tests indicate that these differences are statistically significant (p < 0.001), underscoring the impact of the pandemic on academics’ stress levels.

Table 4 provides an overview of the coping strategies used by UKZN academics to manage distressing emotions. The most frequently used strategies included engaging in hobbies, mindfulness practices, spirituality and staying connected through technology. Each of these approaches has been shown to mitigate stress and anxiety:

Interestingly, the absence of employee assistance programmes (EAPs) in the coping strategies noted by the respondents suggests a potential gap in available support services. Employee assistance programmes offer confidential counselling and resources that can play a crucial role in addressing occupational and personal challenges (Chen et al., 2021). Barton et al. (2022) identified a gap in available mental health services and EAPs for academics, stressing the need for universities to provide more comprehensive and accessible support mechanisms to address mental health challenges effectively. Peters et al. (2022) suggested that institutions should enhance the provision of EAPs and other mental health resources, including tailored interventions to support the specific needs of academic staff during and beyond the pandemic.

The COVID-19 has had a profound impact on academics’ emotional well-being, with increased levels of stress and anxiety being prevalent. The coping strategies employed by academics, such as mindfulness and exercise, have been effective to varying degrees, but there is a need for more structured support systems, including EAPs. Future initiatives should focus on providing tailored support based on empirical evidence to enhance emotional well-being and resilience among academics.

Human resources played a crucial role in supporting emotional well-being in academics during the adversity of the COVID-19 pandemic. The primary support mechanisms included providing mental health resources, offering virtual counselling services and EAPs, implementing safety measures and developing remote work policies. Furthermore, HR organised wellness webinars and workshops to promote mental health (Bieńkowska et al., 2022; Hamouche, 2021). These efforts were complemented by initiatives aimed at bolstering employee engagement and morale, such as virtual team-building activities, recognising employee achievements and encouraging open communication channels (Bieńkowska et al., 2022; Hamouche, 2021). Gaskell et al. (2022) reported that HR’s efforts to offer continuous virtual mental health support, such as access to therapists and online support groups, were beneficial in mitigating anxiety and depression among academic staff. Singh et al. (2023) highlighted the effectiveness of EAPs in providing timely support to academics, reducing stress levels and improving their ability to cope with the challenges posed by the pandemic.

The findings from Table 3 indicate that UKZN academics expressed a need for HR to be more effective in integrating emotional well-being into well-being policies. Key areas where HR support was perceived as lacking include ‘inefficient work-from-home strategies to enhance employee performance’, ‘lack of proactiveness’, ‘limited decision-making’ and ‘ineffective emotional well-being initiatives’. These areas received low scores from UKZN academics, suggesting that the current HR strategies were insufficiently addressing these concerns.

In contrast, the open-ended responses in Table 5 reveal that while HR efforts were acknowledged, they were often viewed as lacking empirical support. Specifically, HR’s initiatives, such as allowing remote work, providing workshops and webinars and increasing email communication on the Independent Counselling and Advisory Service (ICAS) wellness centre, were noted.

However, the perceived effectiveness of these initiatives varied, with 19.7% of academics expressing that the solutions provided were not supported by quality empirical evidence. Jones and Smith (2022) argued that HR departments need to adopt a more evidence-based approach to designing well-being initiatives. The study suggests that using data analytics to assess the impact of current programmes can help identify gaps and areas for improvement, ultimately enhancing the effectiveness of these initiatives (Jones & Smith, 2022). Kumar and Patel (2023) highlighted the importance of leveraging data to customise wellness programmes that address specific challenges faced by academic staff, such as job stress, workload management and work-life balance. Kumar and Patel (2023) advocated for a continuous feedback loop between staff and HR to ensure that policies remain relevant and responsive to changing needs.

While HR provided various forms of support during the pandemic, the findings reveal a critical need for HR to utilise data-driven approaches to refine and enhance their strategies. The integration of empirical research and best practices into HR policies will be essential for addressing the emotional well-being of academics more effectively. This approach will not only support academics during adversity but also contribute to the overall quality of education and institutional performance in the long term.

The study proposes a model for higher education aimed at harnessing emotional intelligence to enhance academics’ well-being during adversity. Figure 1 illustrates how the variable of emotional intelligence, along with its key strategies, shows a significant relationship with academic well-being during adversity. Consequently, when these strategies are effectively implemented by the relevant stakeholders, academics will be able to thrive in adversity, thereby contributing to the SDG 3 objective.

One of the primary challenges encountered by the researcher was soliciting cooperation from participants to complete the online questionnaire. Additionally, there were instances of blank responses for the open-ended questions, further complicating data collection efforts. As a result of these challenges, the study was unable to achieve a 100% response rate.

The study provides the following recommendations: