Abstract
Orientation: This study explores how strategic leadership in security media affects community security in Oman, focussing on drug abuse and psychotropic substances.
Research purpose: This study evaluates the effectiveness of media strategies and leadership in addressing drug-related issues and aligning with Oman’s security goals.
Motivation for the study: Increasing global interactions and technological advancements have exacerbated security challenges, with drug abuse emerging as a serious threat. Strengthening preventive measures is essential to supporting the goals of Oman Vision 2040 in education, health and governance.
Research approach/design and method: A quantitative method was used in this study. A survey designed for Royal Oman Police personnel was refined through expert feedback and a pilot sample of 40 officers. The final survey, distributed via WhatsApp to targeted police groups, received 607 valid responses from 632 collected. Data were analysed using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS), Smart Partial Least Squares (PLS) and AMOS, including Exploratory Factor Analysis, Confirmatory Factor Analysis and Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modelling.
Main findings: Media vision significantly influences citizenship, while motivation and influence impact empowerment, laws and citizenship. Demographic factors such as gender and education also shape perceptions of community security, highlighting the need for targeted media strategies.
Practical/managerial implications: Insights from the study can improve drug prevention strategies and emphasise the need to align media strategies with security goals, aiding in the achievement of Oman Vision 2040.
Contribution/value-add: This study enhances understanding of media leadership in community security, offers practical media strategies and supports drug prevention. Future research should examine contextual factors and long-term effects.
Keywords: strategic leadership; security media; drug abuse prevention; community security; Oman.
Introduction
In light of the rapid transformations in science and technology, the world has experienced a new dynamic environment that has enhanced interaction and cultural exchange among people. However, this has also led to increased security challenges related to organised crime, necessitating national and global efforts to ensure societal stability and security. Societal security is a fundamental priority, reflecting individual stability and reassurance; and strengthening the state’s capacity for self-protection (Anderson & Rainie, 2018). Achieving this security requires meeting basic needs such as access to adequate food and clean water, and providing protection from threats and risks (Niza-Ribeiro, 2022). Meeting these fundamental needs is essential not only for survival but also for fostering resilience and social cohesion, which in turn underpins the broader security framework.
While societal security encompasses various concerns, the growing issue of drug abuse has become a particularly prominent threat, requiring targeted media and leadership strategies. Drugs and psychotropic substances are synthetic or natural materials listed in unified schedules based on their potential for abuse and medical use, as defined by international conventions (MENAFATF, 2011). In this article, drugs and psychotropic substances are defined as addictive substances that are criminalised by law because of their harmful effects on the health and safety of individuals and society (Abd Al-Hassan, 2023). The prevalence of drug use has increased significantly, adversely affecting individuals, families and societies; and posing economic challenges to nations (Taha & Hadi, 2024). Between 2019 and 2021, the global addiction rate rose by 45%, underscoring the need for stringent preventive measures (UNODC Report, 2023). In this context, security media is crucial in raising awareness and preventing drug abuse by shaping community awareness and reinforcing commitment to security strategies through effective media interaction (National Institutes of Health, 2014). This role requires strategic leadership capable of adapting to rapid changes and tailoring media messages to meet public needs (Küng, 2006).
In Oman, commitment to community security is reflected in efforts to combat drug abuse and update relevant legislation, as demonstrated by recent amendments to the Omani Royal Decree (Gulf World, 2015; Royal Decree, 2023). This study aims to analyse the impact of strategic leadership in security media on achieving community security, with a particular focus on drug and psychotropic substance issues. It evaluates the effectiveness of media strategies in line with Oman’s security vision and strategy.
The research problem centres on examining the impact of strategic leadership in security media on achieving community security in Oman, focussing on drug and psychotropic substance issues (Alshuhoomi & Awashreh, 2024). In 2022, Oman recorded 3242 drug-related crimes, constituting 7.3% of total crimes, indicating a notable spread of this issue (The Annual Public Prosecution Conference, 2024). This increase has led to higher drug abuse rates among youth and children, increased violence against women and a rise in theft (Ministry of Social Development, 2017). The involvement of Omani women in addiction poses a serious threat to family cohesion and social identity (Al Harthi et al., 2024). A study has shown deficiencies in the effectiveness of security media and limited public satisfaction with current communication strategies (Ho & Cho, 2017). There is an urgent need to develop targeted awareness programmes based on effective strategies involving experts in the field (De Bruijn & Janssen, 2017). Despite the crucial role of security media in spreading knowledge and enhancing community security, there is a lack of studies focussing on the impact of strategic leadership in security media on combating drugs. Therefore, this study seeks to answer the main question: What is the impact of strategic leadership in security media on achieving community security, specifically regarding drugs and psychotropic substances in Oman, and how successful are they in addressing these issues?
This study is significant as it explores the role of strategic leadership in security media in enhancing community security in Oman, particularly in combating drug abuse, a critical issue affecting societal stability and public health. The study’s contributions are threefold: it enriches theoretical literature by addressing a research gap in security media, offers practical insights for improving strategic media decision-making and aligns with the goals of Oman Vision 2040 by supporting sustainable development and governance. The study aims to demonstrate how strategic leadership in security media affects community security, using drugs and psychotropic substances as a model in Oman. The study’s importance is evident in three main areas: Firstly, from a scientific perspective, it contributes to analysing the impact of strategic leadership in security media on achieving community security in Oman, particularly in combating drugs and psychotropic substances, thus enriching the theoretical literature and addressing a research gap. Secondly, from a practical perspective, it offers valuable insights for improving strategic media decision-making and enhances collaboration between government agencies and the private sector in drug prevention efforts. Thirdly, the study supports the goals of Oman Vision 2040 by advancing education and scientific research, improving health and culture, developing infrastructure, and enhancing governance, reflecting the commitment to sustainable development and prosperity in Oman.
The article opens with an introduction that defines the research problem, main question, objectives and significance. It then presents a literature review and develops the study’s hypotheses. Next, the methodology is detailed, followed by an analysis of the results. Finally, the article discusses key findings and concludes with recommendations, applications, and limitations.
Strategic leadership of security media and community security
This section reviews the literature on the impact of strategic orientations on community security, which are critical in both management and security sciences. These orientations play a pivotal role in determining security strategies’ effectiveness and directing resources to achieve community security objectives. There is increasing interest in understanding how these orientations influence various aspects of community security in Oman. As a result, a comprehensive analysis of the factors that enhance the effectiveness of community security initiatives is essential.
Strategic leadership
Strategic leadership in security media is essential for improving community security, as it effectively directs and coordinates media messages to address the community’s security needs. This leadership goes beyond issuing statements and press releases; it includes building partnerships with the media and guiding public discourse to enhance safety (Hatamleh et al., 2023). The role of strategic leaders is to ensure that security messages align with broader policies and resonate with the public, guiding community responses towards informed, coordinated actions that improve overall security (Shillair et al., 2022). The literature underscores the importance of strategic leadership in security media in shaping perceptions, increasing awareness and fostering trust, all of which contribute significantly to community security (York & MacAlister, 2015).
One core function of strategic leadership in security media is directing security awareness. By leveraging targeted messages and media campaigns, leaders ensure that the public is well-informed about security risks and understands the appropriate responses. This awareness empowers individuals to take proactive measures to protect their well-being and contribute to broader community safety (Alkhazi et al., 2022). In addition to raising awareness, strategic leadership plays a crucial role in fostering trust between security agencies and the community. Transparent management of media messages helps build public trust, making the public more likely to cooperate and support security initiatives. A trusted security agency is also more likely to receive valuable information from the public, which is critical for effective crime prevention and crisis management (Shahbazi & Bunker, 2024).
The media’s role in presenting security information is pivotal in shaping public perceptions and ensuring community security. How security issues are portrayed across various media platforms directly influences public understanding of threats and safety measures. Accurate and well-coordinated media reporting enhances public awareness and fosters trust in security agencies. Studies indicate that media coverage highlighting security achievements and providing comprehensive information significantly strengthens community trust (Sani et al., 2024; Yusuf et al., 2024). This coordination improves the public’s understanding of security measures and contributes to a sense of safety and stability within the community (Padayachee & Worku, 2020).
As community security evolves, driven by advancements in technology and changes in security practices, strategic leadership in media becomes even more critical. Integrating new technologies and rapidly disseminating security information can improve the effectiveness of security measures (RTI International, 2016). However, these changes must be managed carefully to avoid public anxiety and to maintain trust. Shahbazi and Bunker (2024) show that well-managed technological advancements, such as improved investigative tools and data processing, can enhance security without eroding public trust. Moreover, transparent communication of these changes, particularly in times of crisis, helps stabilise community security and ensures that the public feels informed and secure (Hyland-Wood et al., 2020).
Media innovation also plays a crucial role in shaping public perceptions during crises. Effective media coverage during emergencies can manage public anxiety, provide timely information and reduce security concerns (Scanlon, n.d.). In this context, strategic media leadership is vital for crisis management, as it helps guide community reactions and ensures that the public receives accurate and reliable information (Henley et al., 2007). This process enhances community safety by delivering clear, timely information and fostering trust between security agencies and the public (Happer & Philo, 2013).
In addition to awareness and trust, motivation is a key factor in improving community security. Motivating individuals to actively participate in security initiatives strengthens their commitment to safety efforts. Motivation encourages better responses during crises, enhancing the community’s ability to handle emergency situations. Incentive programmes that recognise and reward public participation have been shown to improve both community engagement and trust in security agencies (Castañer & Oliveira, 2020; Chatzipanagiotou & Katsarou, 2023), as evidenced by successful programmes in Oman such as prioritise employment in security agencies for those who participate in security training courses and the community policing programme for civilians to help maintain Omani security (Al-Buloshi, 2023; Al-Hariri, 2024). Overall, strategic leadership in security media plays a central role in enhancing community security by directing awareness, fostering trust and effectively managing crises. Through thoughtful media management, security leaders guide public responses and ensure alignment with broader security goals, thereby contributing to a more secure and resilient society.
Community security
Strategic leadership in security media plays a crucial role in addressing the challenges posed by drug and psychoactive substance crimes, particularly in crisis or emergency situations. The media’s ability to rapidly and accurately disseminate vital information can significantly influence public reactions, reduce anxiety and mitigate the overall impact on community safety (Akbar et al., 2024; Payton, 2021). Effective media leadership fosters trust and confidence in security agencies by providing well-directed information that aligns with broader security objectives, which is vital for managing crises related to substance abuse and crime (Modise, 2023b).
Research consistently shows that strategic leadership in security media enhances community safety by shaping public perception and offering guidance on security matters. Well-managed media messages, especially those related to law enforcement actions, empower citizens to take proactive steps in crime prevention (Al-Shanfari et al., 2020; Heavey et al., 2020). By communicating transparently, security agencies can build trust with the public, particularly in the complex area of drug and psychoactive substance crimes, which ultimately reduces crime rates and strengthens public cooperation (Fakhouri et al., 2023; Oman Daily, 2024). This level of engagement also fosters a stronger sense of citizenship, where individuals feel responsible for the safety of their communities and are more likely to contribute to efforts to address substance-related crimes.
In addition to fostering a sense of responsibility, strategic media leadership empowers the community by providing essential information that encourages informed decision-making and preventive action. Media coverage of security events, safety tips and strategies for managing substance-related issues allows individuals to better understand the risks associated with drugs and psychoactive substances (Zhang, 2022). For instance, Ekpoh et al. (2020) found that comprehensive media coverage, combined with clear guidelines, heightened community awareness and concern about the social impact of substance crimes.
Moreover, strategic leadership in security media raises awareness and builds trust between security agencies and the public. When security institutions effectively communicate their efforts to combat drug-related crimes, the media is pivotal in reinforcing public confidence in these agencies (DCAF, 2023; Macca et al., 2024). Transparent and balanced reporting strengthens cooperation between the community and security authorities, essential for crime prevention and crisis management. Ultimately, strategic leadership in security media is indispensable for managing substance abuse crises and fostering an informed, empowered and cooperative community. By shaping public understanding, building trust and guiding responses during crises, strategic leadership contributes significantly to the safety and resilience of the community. This integrated approach ensures that public trust and participation align with broader security goals, making the fight against drug and psychoactive substance crimes a collaborative and ongoing effort.
Hypothesis development
Strategic orientations and community security
The literature highlights a significant (α < 0.05) impact of strategic orientations on community security in Oman, emphasising the importance of clear goals, resource allocation and coordination among security and civilian entities. For example, coordinated strategies among security agencies have been shown to reduce crime and improve safety (Al-Abri, 2019). Internationally, the collaboration between the Boston Police Department and Harvard researchers illustrates the effectiveness of a participatory approach to crime reduction, engaging various community stakeholders. A flexible, decentralised strategy was also crucial in managing crime across different cities (Roehl, 2006). It is recommended that strategic orientations be inclusive, involving all community sectors to enhance security. This leads to the following hypothesis:
Hypothesis 1: There is a significant impact (α < 0.05) of strategic orientation on community security in all its dimensions within Oman.
Media vision and its impact on community security
Media vision plays a crucial role in shaping community perceptions of security and the effectiveness of security measures. Literature suggests that a clear and relevant media vision enhances community security awareness. Accurate and coordinated security information improves individuals’ understanding of risks and ability to respond effectively (Greene et al., 2021). A positive and consistent media vision fosters trust between the community and security agencies, as media outlets that highlight security efforts can strengthen public trust (Shahbazi & Bunker, 2024). During crises, media leadership provides timely and accurate information that helps manage public anxiety and improves community responses. By conveying clear security messages, a transparent media vision can reduce fear and increase cooperation (Akbar et al., 2024). In Oman, media campaigns have been shown to boost security awareness and enhance cooperation with authorities (Congressional Research Service, 2024):
Hypothesis 2: There is a significant impact (α < 0.05) of media vision on community security in all its dimensions within Oman.
Impact of change on community security
Based on existing literature, hypotheses regarding the impact of change on community security can be developed. It is hypothesised that security policy and procedure changes positively impact security systems’ effectiveness in addressing threats. The literature indicates that well-considered adjustments in security policies can enhance systems’ ability to manage threats and increase the effectiveness of security measures (Ayedh et al., 2023). In addition, changes in security policies are likely to affect public trust in security agencies. Studies suggest that transparently and effectively managed changes can enhance trust between the community and security agencies, whereas poorly managed changes may reduce trust and increase public anxiety (Kanaan et al., 2023). It is also expected that changes in crisis response strategies will improve security systems’ ability to manage crises. Literature shows that updates in security procedures and technology can contribute to better crisis response and reduce their impact on community safety (McCrie, 2016). Finally, it is that security policy changes can affect the sense of security within the community. Research indicates that policy adjustments may either improve or diminish individuals’ sense of security depending on how these changes are implemented and managed (Alhogail & Mirza, 2014). These hypotheses aim to understand how security policy and procedure changes impact community security, including system effectiveness, public trust, crisis response and the sense of security. In the Omani context, it has been observed that changes in security policies and procedures can lead to improved effectiveness of security strategies or present new challenges that need to be addressed. Adapting to changing conditions requires continuous updates to security strategies. A recent study by Al-Shanfari et al. (2020) indicates that changes in Omani security policies have led to more effective threat responses:
Hypothesis 3: There is a significant impact (α < 0.05) of change on community security in all its dimensions within Oman.
Decision-making in enhancing community security
The literature indicates that media decision-making plays a key role in enhancing community security. Strategic media choices can improve the public’s understanding of security risks and guide effective responses (Alraja et al., 2023; Khando et al., 2021). Thoughtfully directed media messages raise security awareness and boost preparedness for potential threats. In addition, media decision-making fosters trust between the community and security agencies. By highlighting successes and sharing transparent security measures, the media can strengthen public trust and encourage cooperation (Strömbäck et al., 2017). Media also plays a critical role in crisis management by providing timely, accurate information during emergencies, which helps reduce public anxiety and manage crises effectively (Savoia et al., 2013). Reassuring messages promote a culture of safety, contributing to community stability (Darling-Hammond et al., 2019).
In Oman, media decision-making has had a notable impact on community security through strategic initiatives. The Ministry of Information (2022) has implemented media strategies to enhance security awareness and improve cooperation with security agencies. Media campaigns and clear communication of security risks have helped educate the public and raise awareness about emergency responses. A study by the National Centre for Statistics and Information (2021) found that these efforts significantly improved crisis response and strengthened trust between security agencies and the community. Reports confirm that Omani media decisions, such as disseminating accurate information on security measures, have helped reduce anxiety and increase public confidence in security authorities (Ministry of Information, 2022). These actions have positively impacted community security in Oman:
Hypothesis 4: There is a significant impact (α < 0.05) of decision-making on community security in all its dimensions within Oman.
Motivation and community security
Motivation significantly enhances community security by improving individual and community commitment to security initiatives and increasing cooperation with security agencies. Scientific literature indicates that material and moral incentives can motivate individuals to actively participate in community safety programmes, thereby enhancing the effectiveness of these programmes and increasing community readiness to address security threats (Sapkota, 2024). Research also shows that motivation can improve public trust in security agencies by fostering general appreciation and offering rewards to individuals who contribute to enhancing community security (Modise, 2023a). Furthermore, motivation is crucial for improving community response during crises, thus reducing the negative impact of crises on community security (Akbar et al., 2024).
Based on the literature, it can be confirmed that motivation positively impacts community security by enhancing commitment and participation, building trust and improving crisis response. Effective motivational strategies can increase individuals’ involvement in community security efforts, thereby improving the effectiveness of security strategies. Al-Shanfari et al. (2020) indicate that incentive programmes and community initiatives promoting cooperation between individuals and security authorities have significantly contributed to enhancing security levels in Omani communities:
Hypothesis 5: There is a significant impact (α < 0.05) of motivation on community security in all its dimensions within Oman.
Based on the development of the hypotheses, the following framework has been established, as shown in Figure 1.
Methodology
This study employed a descriptive-analytical approach, utilising a quantitative method with a survey instrument specifically developed for Royal Oman Police personnel. The survey was crafted based on a thorough literature review, arbitrators’ validation and an exploratory test to ensure its reliability and validity.
The arbitrators, who are faculty members from the College of Business Administration, reviewed the questionnaire twice to ensure that the questions accurately reflected the dimensions of the diversity model and were aligned with the study’s objectives. This review process was conducted thoroughly to assess the clarity and relevance of the questions. Any questions requiring improvement were modified to ensure the collection of reliable data that supports the study’s hypotheses. The questionnaire was reviewed once again after the initial sample testing with participants. The results were analysed, and professional feedback was provided to refine the questions, ensuring that they were well understood by both the respondents and the researchers.
Initially, it was distributed to 40 police officers, and based on their feedback, adjustments were made before the final distribution. The survey was distributed via a Google Drive link to the targeted police entities to facilitate data collection and analysis. The population size is about 2000 as per the Police Headquarters. Permission was granted by the Police Director to distribute the survey among the participants via their WhatsApp groups. A total of 632 surveys were collected; however, a few were discarded because of incorrect responses (e.g. straight-line answers as identified by Hair et al., 2024), resulting in 607 valid responses for analysis. The study employed various statistical software, including Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS), SmartPLS (Bönningstedt, Schleswig-Holstein, Germany) and AMOS (Singapore) AMOS Group Limited, Singapore to analyse the data using a range of statistical methods. These included exploratory factor analysis (EFA), tests for normal distribution, multicollinearity tests and assessments of linear regression assumptions. Frequency tests were conducted for each question and variable to assess measures of central tendency, minimum and maximum values, mean and standard deviation. In addition, advanced statistical methods were applied, such as the Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin (KMO) test, Bartlett’s test, Cronbach’s alpha, Varimax rotation, anti-image correlation analysis, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and structural equation modelling (SEM), including partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM). T-tests for independent samples and analysis of variance (ANOVA) were also utilised to support the findings.
Reliability of measures
Reliability testing of the actual sample was conducted by calculating internal consistency using Cronbach’s alpha. The Cronbach’s alpha values for each dimension of the survey ranged between 0.725 and 0.899, as detailed in Table 1. These results indicate a high degree of reliability for the measures used in the survey, confirming their suitability for the data analysis.
| TABLE 1: Internal consistency of variables. |
In EFA, the aim is to identify related variables and avoid overlap across variables. This study employed the Principal Axis Factoring method because of the established conceptual and theoretical framework used in designing the questionnaire. To ensure the independence of factors and facilitate logical interpretation, orthogonal rotation using the Varimax method was applied. Based on the conceptual framework, nine main factors were identified, explaining 58.972% of the total variance, which is considered acceptable in human studies. The suitability of the data for analysis was evaluated using the KMO test, which yielded a result of 0.941, indicating a good fit for the model. In addition, Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity (Wu et al., 2023) demonstrated statistical significance (p < 0.05), confirming that the data are valid for exploratory analysis as shown in Table 2.
| TABLE 2: Results of Kaiser–Meyer–Olkin and Bartlett tests. |
Respondent profile
The study surveyed a total of 607 respondents, comprising 520 males and 87 females. The majority are married, accounting for 85.0% of the sample. In terms of education, 52.0% have undergraduate degrees (diplomas and bachelor’s), 39.0% have completed high school and 9.2% hold postgraduate degrees (master’s and PhD). Age distribution shows that 41.4% of respondents are between 35 years and 42 years old, while 26.0% are aged between 27 years and 34 years.
Regarding job ranks, the distribution is as follows: Policemen represent 8.9%, Low Officers account for 45.3%, Officers (Second Lieutenants to Captains) make up 33.1% and Command Rank Officers (Majors and above) constitute 12.7%. This indicates that the respondents are fairly represented across low, middle and high ranks.
In terms of departmental assignments, 7.7% of respondents work in the Media and Public Relations Department, 15.8% are in the General Department of Narcotics and Psychotropic Substances Control, while the majority, 76.4%, are assigned to other police formations.
Ethical considerations
Ethical approval to conduct this study was obtained from the Sharqiyah University, Research Ethics and Biosafety Committee (UREBC) (reference no.: ASU/UREBC/24/01).
Results
In assessing the model quality and data suitability for EFA, several tests were conducted. The KMO test yielded a value of 0.941, indicating excellent sample adequacy. Bartlett’s test also confirmed the suitability of the data for analysis, showing statistical significance with a p-value less than 0.05, which implies that the dimensions have significant correlations. To evaluate the quality of each item, the Anti-Image Correlation test was employed, with values ranging from 0.624 to 0.976. These values suggest high suitability for EFA. Furthermore, the results from the communality and factor loadings analysis demonstrated that the dimensions appropriately explained the latent variables. Communality values ranged from 0.220 to 0.798, and factor loadings were found to be suitable, further supporting the validity of the EFA. The tests confirmed that the data are highly suitable for analysis. The KMO value was 0.941, and Bartlett’s test showed strong sample adequacy and significant correlations. The Anti-Image Correlation and factor analysis results also supported the quality and validity of the data for EFA.
The tests conducted to assess the quality of the data for analysis produced highly positive results. The KMO test (0.941) showed that the sample size was excellent, and Bartlett’s test confirmed that the data were suitable for the analysis. The Anti-Image Correlation test showed that the items were a good fit for the analysis, and the communality and factor loading results showed that the dimensions correctly explained the variables. Overall, these tests confirmed that the data are strong and reliable for EFA.
Hypothesis testing: Five hypotheses are examined and summarised next:
- Impact of strategic orientation on community security
- Impact of media vision on community security
- Impact of change on community security
- Impact of decision-making on community security
- Impact of motivation and influence on community security.
Path modelling results for analysing relationships between variables in the research model, addressing research questions 1 through 5, indicated causal relationships between some independent and dependent variables. Some of these results were statistically significant, while others were not, as shown in Figure 2 and Table 3. Significant results are determined by analysing the p-value, with values less than 0.05 indicating statistical significance.
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FIGURE 2: Partial least squares structural equation modelling for the variable. |
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| TABLE 3: Structural model evaluation results. |
The first hypothesis, concerning the effect of strategic orientation on community security, showed no statistical significance between the independent variable, strategic orientation and the dependent variable, community security.
The causal relationship between the independent variable, strategic orientation and the dependent variable, empowerment (education) was not statistically significant (α ≤ 0.05), with a path coefficient of 0.020 and a t-value of 0.434. The causal relationship between the independent variable, strategic orientation and the dependent variable, crimes was not statistically significant (α ≤ 0.05), with a path coefficient of 0.031 and a t-value of 0.399.
The causal relationship between the independent variable, strategic orientation and the dependent variable, laws was not statistically significant (α ≤ 0.05), with a path coefficient of 0.083 and a t-value of 1.191. The causal relationship between the independent variable, strategic orientation and the dependent variable, citizenship was not statistically significant (α ≤ 0.05), with a path coefficient of 0.139 and a t-value of 1.732. This means that the relationship between strategic orientation (independent variable) and the variables of empowerment (education), crimes, laws and citizenship (dependent variables) was not statistically significant. The path coefficients were very small, and the t-values were below the critical value, indicating no strong evidence of a causal link at the 0.05 significance level. Therefore, the hypotheses related to the first question were all rejected. The results show that strategic orientation does not significantly impact community security variables, suggesting that strategic leadership alone is not a strong influence. The low path coefficients and t-values point to minimal or no effect. As a result, the hypothesis that strategic orientation affects community security is rejected.
For the causal relationship between the independent variable, media vision and the dependent variables: empowerment – education: The relationship was not statistically significant (α ≤ 0.05), with a path coefficient of 0.090 and a t-value of 1.886.
Crimes: The relationship was not statistically significant (α ≤ 0.05), with a path coefficient of 0.004 and a t-value of 0.058.
Laws: The relationship was not statistically significant (α ≤ 0.05), with a path coefficient of 0.068 and a t-value of 1.233.
Citizenship: The relationship was statistically significant (α ≤ 0.05), with a path coefficient of 0.187 and a t-value of 2.441.
In simple terms, this means that the relationship between media vision (independent variable) and most of the variables (empowerment-education, crimes and laws) was not significant, meaning media vision did not seem to have a strong effect on them. However, there was a statistically significant relationship between media vision and citizenship, suggesting that media vision does have an impact on citizenship at the 0.05 significance level. In simple terms, the results show that media vision did not have a strong effect on empowerment-education, crimes or laws, as these relationships were not statistically significant. However, media vision did have a significant impact on citizenship, meaning it influences citizenship at a meaningful level. Thus, the first three hypotheses related to the second question were rejected, and the fourth hypothesis was accepted.
Regarding the variable of change, the causal relationship between it and the dependent variable, empowerment – education was statistically significant (α ≤ 0.05), with a path coefficient of 0.129 and a t-value of 2.295. However, the relationship between the independent variable, change and the dependent variable, crimes was not statistically significant (α ≤ 0.05), with a path coefficient of –0.041 and a t-value of 0.411. The relationship between the independent variable, change and the dependent variable, laws was not statistically significant (α ≤ 0.05), with a path coefficient of 0.061 and a t-value of 0.855. The relationship between the independent variable, change and the dependent variable, citizenship was not statistically significant (α ≤ 0.05), with a path coefficient of 0.035 and a t-value of 0.382. Thus, the first hypothesis related to the third question was accepted, and the remaining hypotheses were rejected. The results show that change has a significant impact on empowerment-education, but it does not have a significant effect on crimes, laws or citizenship. Because of this, the hypothesis about change affecting empowerment – education was accepted, while the other hypotheses were rejected.
For the decision-making variable, the causal relationships were:
- Empowerment – education: Statistically significant (α ≤ 0.05), with a path coefficient of 0.234 and a t-value of 5.272.
- Crimes: Statistically significant (α ≤ 0.05), with a path coefficient of 0.180 and a t-value of 2.216.
- Laws: Statistically significant (α ≤ 0.05), with a path coefficient of 0.256 and a t-value of 4.702.
- Citizenship: Not statistically significant (α ≤ 0.05), with a negative path coefficient of -0.102 and a t-value of 1.465.
This means that decision-making had a significant positive effect on empowerment – education, crimes and laws, meaning these relationships are important and noticeable. However, decision-making did not have a significant effect on citizenship, and the relationship was negative, suggesting that as decision-making increased, citizenship scores slightly decreased, but this effect was not strong enough to be considered significant. Thus, the first three hypotheses related to the fourth question were accepted, and the fourth hypothesis was rejected.
Finally, for the motivation and influence variable, the causal relationships were:
- Empowerment – education: Statistically significant (α ≤ 0.001), with a path coefficient of 0.409 and a t-value of 8.210.
- Crimes: Not statistically significant (α ≤ 0.05), with a path coefficient of -0.026 and a t-value of 0.236.
- Laws: Statistically significant (α ≤ 0.001), with a path coefficient of 0.304 and a t-value of 5.199.
- Citizenship: Statistically significant (α ≤ 0.05), with a negative path coefficient of -0.153 and a t-value of 1.973.
This provides a clear view of the demographic differences based on gender, marital status and educational level. In simple terms, this means that the variable motivation and influence had a strong and significant effect on empowerment-education and laws, meaning these relationships are important. It also had a weaker, not significant effect on crimes. For citizenship, the relationship was statistically significant but negative, meaning as motivation and influence increased, citizenship scores decreased, although the effect was not very strong. Overall, some variables showed a clear impact, while others did not.
The coefficient of determination (R2) and effect size
The accuracy of the model’s prediction is explored by testing the coefficient of determination (R2). This coefficient indicates the causal power of the model related to the respondent sample. Each latent variable has a coefficient of determination, as is the case for the variables of empowerment – education, crimes, laws and citizenship. The value of the coefficient of determination is between 0 and 1. The higher the value of R2 is above zero, the more it indicates the predictive ability of the model (Hair et al., 2024). According to Chin (1998), a model’s predictive ability is classified as weak, average, or high based on its coefficient of determination (R2). The threshold values for these categories are 0.19 for weak, 0.333 for average, and 0.67 for high predictive ability. According to these recommendations, the predictive ability can be considered average for the variables of empowerment – education (coefficient of determination R2 = 0.636) and laws (coefficient of determination R2 = 0.479) and a weak predictive ability for the variables of crimes (coefficient of determination R2 = 0.025) and citizenship (coefficient of determination R2 = 0.144) as shown in Table 4.
| TABLE 4: Coefficient of determination R2. |
Table 4 shows that the R2 value measures the model’s predictive effectiveness, with higher values indicating greater accuracy. In this case, the model demonstrates average predictive ability for empowerment, education and laws but weak predictive ability for crimes and citizenship.
As for measuring the effect size of the independent variables, Cohen (1988) suggested that the effect size is weak if the value of f2 is between 0.02 and 0.15, and the effect size is medium if the value of f2 is between 0.15 and 0.35 and the effect size is large if the value of f2 is higher than 0.35. Therefore, the largest effect size related to the independent variables is the variable of motivation and influence, and its effect was medium on the dependent variable empowerment – education with a large effect size of 0.153 according to Cohen’s classification (1988). As for the second place, the decision-making variable was with a weak effect size of 0.050 The change variable came in third place with a weak effect size of 0.012, the media vision variable came in fourth place with a small effect size of 0.008 and the strategic orientation variable came in fifth place with a weak effect size of 0.000, as shown in Table 5.
The study looked at how different factors influenced the variable of empowerment-education. Motivation and influence had the strongest impact, followed by decision-making with a weaker effect. Change and media vision had very small impacts, while strategic orientation had the least effect. In summary, motivation and influence were the most influential factors, while strategic orientation had the smallest influence.
As for the effect size f2 of the predictor variables on the rest of the dependent variable, all values were weak and had a small effect size, and the values ranged between 0.059 and 0.000, and the motivation and influence variable had the highest effect size. This means the predictor variables had only a small impact on the dependent variables, with most effects being weak. ‘Motivation and influence’ had the largest effect, but still relatively small.
Summary of demographic differences based on the provided results
Six hypotheses were tested to examine statistically significant differences between demographic groups (gender, marital status, educational level, age, rank and management affiliation). The findings show that:
- In terms of gender, strategic orientation shows no statistically significant differences between males and females (t-value = 1.480, p = 0.141). For media vision, there are statistically significant differences, with higher estimates among males (t-value = 2.042, p = 0.043). For a change, there are no statistically significant differences (t-value = 1.710, p = 0.090). Decision-making shows no statistically significant differences (t-value = 0.061, p = 0.952). Motivation and influence also show no significant differences (t-value = 0.142, p = 0.888). Similarly, crime, laws, empowerment (education) and citizenship show no statistically significant differences, except for citizenship, which has higher estimates among males (t-value = 3.414, p < 0.001). The analysis reveals that while gender differences are minimal in most areas, males tend to report higher estimates for media vision and citizenship, highlighting key gender-related distinctions in perceptions.
- When examining marital status, strategic orientation shows no significant differences between single and married individuals (t-value = -1.106, p = 0.269). Media vision, change, decision-making, motivation and influence, crime, laws and empowerment (education) also show no significant differences (p > 0.05 for all). However, citizenship shows statistically significant differences, with higher estimates among married individuals (t-value = -3.852, p < 0.001). Marital status appears to have little impact on most factors, but married individuals report significantly higher estimates for citizenship, suggesting marital status may influence perceptions of civic engagement.
- In terms of educational level, strategic orientation shows no significant differences (f-value = 1.47, p = 0.231). For media vision, change, decision-making, motivation and influence, crime and empowerment –education, statistically significant differences are observed, with higher estimates among those with a general education diploma or lower compared to university graduates (f-values ranging from 3.074 to 7.849, p < 0.05). Laws show no significant differences (f-value = 1.548, p = 0.214), and citizenship shows no statistically significant differences either (f-value = 2.223, p = 0.109). Educational differences are significant in several areas, with individuals having a general education diploma or lower showing higher estimates across multiple variables, indicating that education level influences perceptions of media vision, motivation and empowerment.
Post hoc comparisons, for media vision, change, decision-making, motivation and influence, crime and empowerment – education, the differences favour those with a general education diploma or lower compared to university graduates and postgraduates.
When evaluating whether the data effectively addresses the two main questions, the analysis provides partial answers to both. Regarding the impact of strategic leadership in security media on community security, particularly in relation to drugs in Oman, the study reveals that strategic leadership factors – such as planning, media vision, decision-making and motivation – positively influence community security in areas such as education, laws and citizenship. However, it falls short of addressing the specific impact on drug-related issues. For example, strategic orientation shows no clear effect, media vision enhances citizenship but does not directly impact drug-related concerns, motivation improves education and legal frameworks but fails to reduce crime, and decision-making contributes to crime reduction in general but does not specifically target drug problems. This could be because participants (and the public) tend to view media as addressing societal issues broadly rather than focussing on specific topics such as drug-related challenges.
Success of strategic leadership and media in addressing drug-related issues: The study lacks clear evidence of success in addressing drug-related problems. While decision-making strategies may help reduce overall crime, they are not specifically linked to drug-related offenses. Additionally, there is no data on their impact on drug use or trafficking, making it difficult to assess their effectiveness in addressing drug-related issues. More focused research is needed to evaluate the success of these strategies.
Discussion
This study explored the relationships between strategic orientation, media vision, change, decision-making and motivation in shaping community security in Oman. The findings reveal varying impacts of these factors across different security dimensions, highlighting the complexity of community security dynamics. The hypothesis that strategic orientation would significantly impact community security was not supported. This contrasts with literature emphasising the importance of strategic leadership in security, such as Alkhazi et al. (2022) and Hatamleh et al. (2023), who found that strategic orientations enhance community awareness, build trust and reduce crime. However, in Oman, other factors, such as media vision and decision-making, may have a more dominant role. In addition, Oman’s centralised security structure may limit the influence of strategic orientations compared to more decentralised models in other countries.
Media vision had a significant positive effect on citizenship, aligning with studies by Friedrich et al. (2012) and Macca et al. (2024), which highlight the media’s role in shaping public perceptions and fostering trust. Although media vision did not significantly affect empowerment, crime or laws, it contributed to citizenship, underscoring its role in fostering public participation in security initiatives. This finding suggests that media could be further leveraged to engage the public in security decision-making and raise awareness about local security issues.
The hypothesis that changes would significantly influence community security was partially supported. While change positively impacted empowerment (education), it had no significant effect on crime, laws or citizenship. This aligns with research by Shahbazi and Bunker (2024) and McCrie (2016), which discuss the complex relationship between security system changes and community perceptions. In Oman, policy changes focussed on education and public awareness may have a stronger impact on security perceptions than structural or procedural changes.
Decision-making was found to significantly influence empowerment (education), crime and laws but not citizenship. This supports the literature, such as Khando et al. (2021) and Alraja et al. (2023), which emphasises the importance of effective decision-making in resource allocation and security strategy design. The lack of impact on citizenship suggests that while decision-making can influence security outcomes, it may not foster broader community engagement. Participatory decision-making processes could be more effective in building a collective sense of security.
Motivation significantly impacted empowerment (education), laws and citizenship, but not crime. This supports the literature by Sapkota (2024) and Castañer and Oliveira (2020), which underscores the role of motivation in increasing public participation in security initiatives. The lack of impact on crime reduction suggests that motivation alone may not directly affect crime rates, indicating the importance of other factors, such as law enforcement and socio-economic conditions, in crime prevention.
Finally, significant demographic differences were found in perceptions of community security, with males and individuals with lower educational levels reporting different views compared to females and those with higher education. This aligns with studies by Alraja et al. (2023) and Khando et al. (2021), suggesting that demographic factors shape individuals’ responses to security policies. These differences highlight the need for tailored security strategies that address the diverse perceptions and needs of various community groups.
This study sheds light on the complex relationships between strategic orientation, media vision, change, decision-making and motivation in community security in Oman. While some hypotheses were supported, others were not, suggesting these factors’ impacts may vary based on local socio-political and cultural contexts. Notably, media vision was found to play a key role in fostering citizenship and community engagement, and motivation enhanced public participation and trust. However, the lack of significant effects from strategic orientation and change highlights the need for further research into the specific conditions under which these factors influence community security. Future studies could explore the interplay between these factors, consider demographic influences and examine the long-term effects of security policy changes.
Management implications
This study provides valuable insights for improving community security in Oman. It suggests that strategic orientation has a limited impact on security outcomes, therefore managers should focus on context-specific factors such as organisational culture, public trust and community needs instead. The study also highlights the importance of media vision in fostering citizenship. Managers should implement targeted media campaigns to build trust, promote civic responsibility and encourage public participation in security initiatives. In addition, managing change, particularly in technological and policy shifts, proved beneficial for empowerment through education. Managers should prioritise clear communication and educational programmes to help citizens adapt to new security measures. Moreover, motivation is another key driver of community engagement. Managers should create incentives for participation and provide opportunities for individuals to actively contribute to community safety. The study also identified demographic differences in security perceptions, suggesting that strategies should be tailored to address the needs of different groups, particularly males and individuals with lower education levels. Finally, the findings show that empowerment and laws have a stronger impact on community security than crime and citizenship. Managers should prioritise interventions in areas with higher impact potential, such as education and law enforcement while addressing crime and citizenship with longer-term strategies.
Recommendations
Based on the findings, several recommendations are proposed to address the gaps and enhance the role of strategic leadership and security media in combating drug-related challenges in Oman. Firstly, future research should focus on how decision-making, motivation, and planning can directly address drug-related crimes, such as drug use and trafficking. Developing clear metrics to measure the impact of security media on these issues will help assess the effectiveness of leadership strategies. Secondly, media campaigns should be tailored to vulnerable groups, such as youth and marginalised communities, to target drug-related issues more effectively. Researching the impact of drug education and prevention campaigns can also help reduce stigma and encourage proactive public engagement. Thirdly, collaboration among security agencies, educational institutions and community organisations should be strengthened to improve media outreach. Including former people with addictions and rehabilitation experts in campaigns could provide relatable and impactful messaging. In addition, leveraging advanced technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI), social media analytics and mobile applications can enhance drug detection and prevention efforts. Interactive tools and gamification strategies may also engage younger audiences effectively. Finally, comparing Oman’s initiatives with successful global practices can highlight transferable strategies, while studying long-term behavioural changes in communities exposed to anti-drug campaigns can provide insights into sustained media effectiveness. These recommendations aim to provide a comprehensive approach to improving strategic leadership and media efforts in addressing drug-related challenges in Oman.
Limitations
This article is based on police officers’ responses and evaluations collected through a questionnaire. Since the research is recent, specific statistics on the reduction of drug use or trafficking cases cannot yet be provided, as this data is not available in official police records. More detailed information is expected to be available within few years.
Conclusion
This study explores the relationships between strategic orientation, media vision, change, decision-making and motivation with various dimensions of community security in Oman. The analysis confirmed the suitability of the data for EFA, with strong KMO and Bartlett’s test results supporting the findings. Despite these robust results, the study revealed the complex and nuanced effects of these factors on community security. Strategic orientation did not significantly affect any of the community security dimensions, including empowerment (education), crime prevention, laws or citizenship. This contrasts with existing literature, suggesting that local contextual factors in Oman may play a role or other variables may have a stronger influence. Media vision, however, had a significant positive effect on citizenship, aligning with research that highlights the media’s role in shaping public perceptions and trust in security initiatives.
The study also found that change positively impacted empowerment (education), but had no significant effects on crime, laws or citizenship. This supports the idea that managing changes in technology and policy can enhance public trust, but targeted strategies are needed for different community security dimensions. Decision-making emerged as a significant factor, positively influencing empowerment, crime prevention and law enforcement, but not citizenship, indicating that while effective decision-making is crucial, it may not alone drive public engagement in citizenship.
Motivation and influence significantly impacted empowerment – education, laws and citizenship, but not crime prevention. This reinforces the role of motivation in driving community involvement in security initiatives. The model’s predictive power was moderate for empowerment and laws, but weaker for crime and citizenship, suggesting context-dependent influences. Demographic differences also affected security perceptions, with males and those with lower education levels showing differing views, underscoring the importance of considering these factors in community security strategies. The study implies that while strategic orientation and media vision may not universally influence community security dimensions, strategies focussing on motivation, decision-making and change management are essential. Tailored media strategies should also be employed to boost public trust, particularly in relation to citizenship. Demographic factors should be considered when designing security interventions.
Future research should examine the contextual factors in Oman influencing the impact of strategic orientation and media vision, as well as investigate how different demographic groups respond to security measures. Longitudinal studies could further assess the long-term effects of these variables on community security. By exploring additional factors, future research can help develop more comprehensive, context-specific community security strategies. In conclusion, this study highlights the importance of decision-making, motivation and media engagement in shaping effective community security strategies in Oman. Further research into the complex interactions between these factors can provide deeper insights into improving security interventions.
Acknowledgements
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.
Authors’ contributions
R.A.A. contributed to the idea, literature review, participated in developing the framework, interpreting the data, discussion, writing, revising, and drafting of the article. S.A.A. participated in developing the framework, collecting data and data analysis.
Funding information
The research leading to these results has received funding from Ministry of Higher Education, Research, and Innovation (MoHERI) of the Sultanate of Oman under the Block Funding Program: Ref. No. MoHERI/BFP/ASU/2024.
Data availability
The data that support the findings of this study are available on request from the corresponding author, R.A.A.
Disclaimer
The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and are the product of professional research. The article does not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency or that of the publisher. The authors are responsible for this article’s results, findings and content
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