The research objectives were:

The study applied a quantitative approach with a correlational research design. The target population of the study was working mothers in Namibia, specifically across the Khomas and Otjozondjupa regions only, to enable a sample of at least 120–150 working mothers. The final sample, selected through purposive sampling, was made up of 166 working mothers with distinct work positions in different workplaces, selected through a purposive sampling technique.

Ethical clearance to conduct this study was obtained from the University of Namibia, Department of Psychology and Social Work Ethics Committee (No. PS-SoAHS-FHSVM-2023/02). Various organisations that employ working mothers in the Khomas and Otjozondjupa regions were approached. Informed consent was obtained from participants in the form of a document stipulating their voluntary status to participate in the study as well as their complete freedom to withdraw from the study at any point without incurring any negative consequence. Confidentiality and/or anonymity were utilised in the sense that participants were not required to provide any personal identifying details, for instance, their names, on the questionnaires. Additionally, the participants were assured that their responses would not be specifically linked to them and would be reported as aggregates. Participants could withdraw from the study at any time they deemed fit, as participation was entirely voluntary. No negative consequences were incurred for terminating participation. Lastly, all sources used in the study were referenced to ensure integrity and to avoid plagiarism. The collected data were stored on a password-protected computer, with access available to only the researchers. All hardcopy questionnaires were stored in a locked cabinet, with access to only the researchers.

The WLB measure developed by Fisher-McAuley et al. (2003) yielded Cronbach’s alpha of 0.83, while the measure by Rautenbach and Rothmann (2017) used to assess psychological, social and emotional well-being yielded Cronbach’s alpha of 0.91. Lastly, the career well-being measure by Coetzee et al. (2020) yielded Cronbach’s alpha of 0.95. The reliability statistics reveal that the measures are reliable for use in the Namibian context.

Further, on demographics, the majority of participants (34.5%) were between the ages of 30–40 years old. In terms of qualification, most participants had acquired a degree (29.5%). Most participants (30.1%) had 1–2 dependents. The rest of the demographics are depicted in Table 1.

Data were analysed and computed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences version 29. The study found a statistically significant negative relationship between WLB and well-being (r = –0.34, p < 0.05; medium effect).

On the subsets of well-being investigated in the study, a statistically significant negative relationship between WLB and emotional well-being is reported (r = –0.41, p < 0.05; medium effect). A statistically significant negative relationship between WLB and psychological well-being is observed (r = –0.30, p < 0.05; medium effect). Further, a statistically significant negative relationship between WLB and social well-being is found (r = –0.29, p < 0.05; small effect). The results of the study indicate that when WLB combined (i.e. work interference with personal life, personal life interference with work and work/personal life enhancement) decreases, then well-being, inclusive of its dimensions, will increase.

On the career well-being of working mothers, a statistically significant negative relationship between WLB and career well-being is also reported (r = –0.19, p < 0.05; small effect). In addition, a statistically significant negative relationship between WLB and work engagement is reported (r = –0.27, p < 0.05; small effect).

Further analyses were conducted on the relationship between dimensions of WLB and the various constructs in the study. A statistically significant negative relationship between WIPL and well-being is observed (r = –0.42, p < 0.05; medium effect). The study found a statistically significant negative relationship between PLIW and well-being (r = –0.29, p < 0.05; small effect). A statistically significant positive relationship between WPLE and well-being is demonstrated (r = 0.28, p < 0.05; small effect). A statistically significant negative relationship between WIPL and career well-being is found (r = –0.29, p < 0.05; small effect). The study also found a statistically significant negative relationship between PLIW and career well-being (r = –0.20, p < 0.05; small effect). A statistically significant negative relationship between personal life interference and work engagement was detected (r = –0.033, p < 0.05; medium effect). In addition, a statistically significant positive relationship between WPLE and career well-being is reported (r = 0.34, p < 0.05; medium effect). Lastly, a statistically significant positive relationship between WPLE and work engagement was uncovered. These correlation analyses are depicted in Table 2.

The study found a negative significant relationship between WLB and well-being (emotional, psychological, social and career well-being) in working mothers in the Khomas and Otjozondjupa regions, Namibia. A similar study by Bakari et al. (2020) observed that there was a significant relationship between employees’ WLB and their well-being. It is more probable that a working mother will do poorly at work when her well-being is unstable. Given that employees comprise the organisation, working mothers need to be in the best mental state to enhance the organisation’s performance.

The study delved deeper into the four different domains of well-being and their relationships to WLB. The first aspect of well-being includes emotional well-being. As revealed in the analysis, the study found a statistically significant negative relationship between all dimensions of well-being and WLB, indicating that the more work interference with personal life (WIPL) and the more there is personal life interference with work (PLIW) and less work/personal life enhancement (WPLE), all dimensions of well-being are negatively affected. Jagyasi (2019) posits that ensuring the mental and emotional well-being of staff has several benefits for both the company and their homes, directly impacting business operations.

Further, the study found a statistically significant negative relationship between WLB and psychological well-being. This means that if an employee cannot find a balance between work and their personal life, this will negatively affect their mental health, and the employee might become stressed, depressed and anxious. Psychological well-being is crucial to maintain because it makes employees more likely to feel a strong sense of attachment to their employer, which improves work output (Kundi et al., 2020). Furthermore, a study by Yayla and Eskici (2021) uncovered that nurses’ psychological well-being was significantly affected by the variable of neglecting life the most, followed by coronaphobia and WLB.

Another aspect of well-being is social well-being. Every individual wants to feel supported and welcomed in their communities, at work and in society at large. One of the strongest ‘antidotes’ for tough times is the support of others. Given that we dedicate a third of our lives to our jobs, the relationships and exchanges we make with co-workers have an enormous impact on our happiness and level of excitement for what we do (Bakar et al., 2015). Table 2 shows that the study found a statistically significant negative relationship between WLB and social well-being. This implies that inadequate WLB can lead to low social well-being. In the present study, WLB is conceptualised as interference with personal life (WIPL), personal interference with work (PLIW) and work/personal life enhancement (WPLE).

As such, when there is more work interference with personal life or personal life interference with work, coupled with less personal/work life enhancement to mitigate such interferences, employees social well-being is negatively affected.

The last aspect of well-being is career well-being. In accordance with Ferreira (2019), career well-being is a fundamental pillar of employees’ overall well-being, and a misinterpretation thereof can result in a pattern of behaviours and thoughts that leave one feeling overburdened, unengaged and unsatisfied in both personal and professional life. The study found a statistically significant negative relationship between WLB and career well-being. This implies that when dimensions of work life balance are enhanced, career well-being is also enhanced.

Similarly, the study also found a significant negative relationship between WLB and work engagement. The WLB scale is divided into three sections, namely WIPL, PLIW and WPLE. The study correlated the dimensions with well-being and career well-being. As illustrated in Table 2, the study found a statistically significant negative relationship between WIPL and well-being, meaning that when an employee’s work interferes with personal life, this influences their well-being negatively. Table 2 shows that the study found a statistically significant negative relationship between PLIW and well-being. This means that when an employee’s personal life interferes with work, their well-being is negatively influenced.

The results further indicate that when there is adequate WPLE, employee well-being is influenced positively. The study found a statistically significant negative relationship between WIPL and career well-being, implying that when employee work interferes with personal life, it influences employee career well-being negatively. When an employee’s personal life interferes with work, it influences the employee’s career well-being negatively. Lastly, as illustrated in Table 2, the study found a statistically significant positive relationship between WPLE and career well-being, suggesting that when there is adequate WPLE, employee career well-being is influenced positively.

This further illustrates that the three dimensions of work life balance are crucial for work engagement. A study by Rajalakshmi and Gayathri (2022) also revealed a significant negative impact of WLB on work engagement. Although teachers with poor WLB were found to be well involved in their work, this may not hold true in the long run. As a result of these findings, more attention should be paid to the WLB of working mothers in order to promote their well-being and increase their engagement at work, both of which will improve the performance of the organisation.

This study only looked at three variables, namely WLB, well-being and work engagement. At the same time, there could be other variables that may influence well-being and work engagement, such as stress, work environment, job design and rewards. All these are relevant variables that future studies can conduct research on.

Furthermore, the study was carried out covering two regions only, which were Khomas and Otjozondjupa in Namibia; future studies should extend to more regions or even the entire country of Namibia. Moreover, the study focused on working mothers only. Therefore, future studies should focus on fathers as well, because some children are raised only by working fathers.

Additionally, the sample size of the study was 166 working mothers, which is a rather small sample size. Future studies should increase the sample size to have a better and more accurate study that can be generalised to a broader population.

Mothers who work have obligations to both the company and their children. Thus, striking a balance between work and life is crucial for the working mother. This can be accomplished in a variety of ways – ultimately, working mothers should prioritise self-care. Establishing self-care time is essential for working mothers. It is advisable that they plan regular pauses, partake in enjoyable and calming activities and make sure they receive adequate sleep. Being well taken care of enables one to be more focused and effective both at work and at home (Sundaresan, 2014).

Further, organisations must take cognisance of the different roles of working mothers and strategise on how to offer support accordingly. Consequently, organisational goals pertaining to working mothers’ well-being should be centred around fostering a supportive work environment. The wellness department of organisations could offer counselling services to working mothers to assist them in navigating their work and personal responsibilities efficiently. Integrating work-based counselling services could provide working mothers with a safe space to share their struggles and develop positive coping mechanisms.

Moreover, employers could also impose a policy that prohibits workers from taking work home; for instance, unless a time-sensitive deadline needs to be met, taking a work laptop home should be banned. Company emails could also be disabled on employees’ personal phones to avoid distraction at home. Unfortunately, the working mother will have to find a balance in an organisation where the aforementioned policy is not achievable. For instance, she may choose to devote some hours to work and other hours to personal matters.

A study by Kinman and Jones (2008) strongly implies that a worker’s well-being is likely to increase in a setting that helps people maintain a balance between their professional and personal lives. Therefore, organisations, in an effort to accommodate mothers with young children (between the ages of 0 and 3 years), could consider adopting a working-from-home policy. Remote working encourages mothers to perceive their jobs as meaningful, enhancing work engagement.

Furthermore, organisations may benefit from creating high organisational welfare through co-worker support. Co-worker support can be achieved by encouraging employees to become acquainted with each other through team-building activities or informal interactions (such as in-group hikes or barbecues). This could dismantle any communication barriers which will in turn make it easier for employees to ask each other for or offer support. By imposing this, working mothers will feel connected to other people in the organisation. This study advocates that organisations encourage co-worker support because working mothers will feel a sense of belonging to the organisation and will be more willing to engage in their work.

The effectiveness of the above-mentioned largely depends on supervisor support. When working mothers observe genuine concern from their managers about their personal lives, it improves their perception of their company. This fosters strong work engagement and organisational citizenship behaviour which ultimately improves the success of the organisation. A combined effort from working mothers, managers and the organisation is required.