Psychological capital is a key higher-order construct within positive organisational behaviour and is comprised of hope, optimism, resilience and self-efficacy (Avey, 2014; Luthans et al., 2006; Shah et al., 2019). Hope is the motivation to pursue goals and the expectation that even in the face of adversity, when one must find alternative pathways, the desired outcome will be achieved (Compton & Hoffman, 2013). Optimism is defined as having a positive outlook in every circumstance and anticipating success both now and into the future (Seckinger et al., 2010). Resilience can be explained as the ability to effectively cope with and recover from adversity, obstacles or challenges (Rook et al., 2018). Self-efficacy refers to an individual’s belief in their own ability to achieve their goals or successfully complete a task in a given context (Bandura, 1997).

Psychological capital is measurable and open to development through simple interventions, making it a valuable especially in its ability to increase performance (Finch et al., 2023; Lupșa et al., 2020; Luthans & Youssef-Morgan, 2017; Reichard et al., 2024; Salanova & Ortega-Maldonado, 2019). Mbatha’s (2016) study on a South African sample supports the performance relationship and highlights PsyCap as a significant predictor of performance. Psychological capital has been positively associated with desirable work attitudes and behaviours such as job satisfaction, employee well-being, organisational commitment, organisational citizenship behaviours, reduced job stress and reduced turnover intention (Avey et al., 2011; Lupșa et al., 2020; Shah et al., 2019). Furthermore, when leaders demonstrate high levels of PsyCap, it is known to enhance the PsyCap and performance of employees and teams (Rebelo et al., 2018; Walumbwa et al., 2010).

Work engagement is defined as a positive, meaningful work-related mindset that is characterised by vigour, dedication and absorption (Bakker, 2022; Bakker & Albrecht, 2018). Vigour is characterised by high energy levels, excitement and cognitive resilience at work, motivating employees to be persistent in achieving their goals (Bakker & Demerouti, 2008). Dedication refers to a deep involvement in one’s work and experiencing meaningfulness, passion, challenge and gratification in one’s role (Bakker & Demerouti, 2008). Absorption is characterised by being deeply captivated and involved in work that time passes quickly, and it becomes difficult to disengage from the task (Bakker & Demerouti, 2008).

Work engagement has numerous positive consequences for organisations, including greater customer satisfaction, performance, commitment to the organisation, lower levels of turnover intention (Bakker & Demerouti, 2008), creativity (Agarwal et al., 2012); better customer service (Rabiul et al., 2022) and performance (Borst et al., 2020). Husin et al. (2025) highlighted that work engagement is pivotal in fostering innovative work behaviours. Work engagement is contagious and can be influenced by engaged co-workers, leaders and even family (Bakker, 2022).

Wang (2024) suggests that work engagement plays a critical role in teachers’ psychological well-being and is considered a mediator between job demands and well-being. Both individuals and organisations can therefore benefit immensely from elevated levels of work engagement. According to Kawada et al. (2024) job resources are positively related to work engagement, positing that by enhancing coaching, social support, constructive performance feedback and other resources at work it will likely result in higher work engagement. This relates back to the JD-R theory, whereby personal resources and job resources are likely to have a positive effect on work engagement (Bakker, 2022; Bakker & Demerouti, 2008). Mazzetti et al. (2023) in their meta-analysis of work engagement concluded that personal and development resources have a stronger relationship than job and social resources.

Numerous studies have demonstrated a positive relationship between PsyCap and work engagement. Simons and Buitendach (2013) found a positive relationship between PsyCap and work engagement in their study of South African call centre employees. Bekker (2016) corroborated this result, finding a positive relationship between PsyCap and work engagement in a South African study at a poultry hatchery. Biswal et al. (2025), Bonner (2016) and Wirawan et al. (2020) concur with these results, suggesting a significantly positive relationship between the constructs under study.

Du Plessis and Boshoff (2018) found a similar result in their study on 647 managers in a national private healthcare institution, with a strong statistically significant positive correlation between PsyCap and work engagement. Alessandri et al. (2018) highlighted that personal resources are related to work engagement. This aligns with the JD-R model, suggesting that PsyCap could increase work engagement through the fostering of personal resources (Bakker & Demerouti, 2008):

Kotze (2018), together with Ngwenya and Pelser (2020), state that PsyCap has a significantly positive influence on work engagement. In addition, the studies of Wu (2025), Du Plessis and Boshoff (2018), Bekker (2016) and Alessandri et al. (2018) revealed that PsyCap can predict work engagement. In a study on high school teachers, Wu (2025) determined that PsyCap is a significant predictor of work engagement. While Nagoji and Mackasare’s (2023) study on private higher institutions in India showed that resilience and optimism could predict work engagement. As such, hypotheses two to six were developed:

With these hypotheses in mind to explore the PsyCap–work engagement relationship, the methodology will be discussed in the next section.

The study encompassed the entire population of a private TVET college in the Eastern Cape. Non-probability convenience sampling was used to survey the entire population. Participants were given the option to exit the study at any time, and of the 176 surveys that were distributed, 119 completed surveys were returned, indicating a 68% response rate. This quantitative research took on a correlational, cross-sectional design, measuring the constructs at a single point in time. Participants completed a composite self-report survey in group sessions, giving an opportunity for the participants to ask questions and the researcher to provide clarity.

The questionnaire comprised the shortened versions of the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES-9) and the Psychological Capital Questionnaire (PCQ-12), together with a section on biographical details. The UWES-9 measures work engagement with nine items on a seven-point Likert scale to identify scores for vigour, dedication and absorption (Schaufeli et al., 2006). An example of an item is ‘at my work I feel bursting with energy’. The measure shows great reliability in its studies with a Cronbach’s alpha of between 0.80 and 0.91 (Schaufeli et al., 2006). The UWES is freely available for research purposes, and as such, permission was not required to use this instrument.

The PCQ-12 uses a six-point Likert scale to measure efficacy, hope, resilience and optimism with twelve items and is shown to be reliable (Luthans et al., 2008). An example of an item is ‘I can think of many ways to reach my current work goals’. Kamei et al. (2018) calculated an internal consistency of 0.81 for the measure, suggesting that it is reliable. Permission to use the PCQ-12 was obtained from Mind Garden.

Data were manually captured onto Microsoft Excel and were then statistically analysed using IBM SPSS 25 and Amos version 25. The factor structures for PsyCap and Work Engagement were assessed using confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and Cronbach’s alpha to ensure adequate factor validity and reliability. The resulting factor structures were used in further analyses (using factor scores). Relationships were measured using Pearson’s Product Moment correlation, while multiple regression was used to determine if PsyCap could predict work engagement.

Ethical clearance to conduct this study was obtained from Nelson Mandela University Research Ethics Committee (Human) (H18-BES-IOP-024). All research procedures were in accordance with the institutional ethics and written informed consent was obtained from all individual participants involved in the study.

PsyCap interventions have shown to have great success in enhancing PsyCap (Finch et al., 2023; Lupșa et al., 2020; Reichard et al., 2024; Salanova & Ortega-Maldonado, 2019). Interventions designed specifically to enhance optimism and self-efficacy would be greatly beneficial in enhancing work engagement in TVET colleges. Lupșa et al. (2020) in their meta-analysis concur that while interventions focusing on overall PsyCap have a significant effect, they are less effective than interventions focusing on a single PsyCap variable. Therefore, designing training programmes that build situation-specific confidence in employees (Bandura, 1997) through mastery or foster positive future expectations through coaching could potentially lead to significant increases in work engagement. Reichard et al. (2024) concur that vicarious modelling and social persuasion are useful individual sources to enhance efficacy, while organisational support can include training and career path discussions. Optimism can be enhanced through the setting of achievable goals and positive self-talk, while organisations can facilitate the development of optimism by way of coaching and awareness-building activities (Reichard et al., 2024). According to Finch et al. (2023), the HERO intervention can be conducted to enhance the PsyCap variables and include a combination of interactive quizzes, education on the variables, videos of the variable in action and worksheet activities. Furthermore, the meta-analysis of Loghman et al. (2025) suggests that the impacts of PsyCap interventions and each of its variables are even greater than those outlined by Lupșa et al. (2020), highlighting the value of investing in these interventions.

In addition to this, recruitment and selection strategies should focus on acquiring employees who have a tendency towards hope, optimism, resilience and self-efficacy. The findings of this study propose that hiring employees with higher levels of PsyCap may serve as a predictor of greater work engagement to align better with organisational objectives.

Leadership development interventions should emphasise enhancing PsyCap, as this has a ripple effect and is likely to positively impact the PsyCap of employees.

While this study offers useful insights into the relationship between PsyCap and work engagement, several limitations were observed. Data were collected through self-administered questionnaires in group settings, which may increase the tendency towards social desirability as well as common method bias. Typically, this results from the desire to provide favourable responses, rather than accurate ones and therefore the results must be interpreted accordingly.

The sample size for the study was small (n = 119), which prevents the generalisability of results. Future research could incorporate larger samples exploring TVET colleges in South Africa. A wider selection of academic institutions and colleges could be considered to broaden the view of the study.

The study took on a cross-sectional design, providing a one-time view of the work engagement and PsyCap levels of TVET college employees. It would be beneficial to implement longitudinal studies that can measure the changes in work engagement and PsyCap over time, allowing for causal attributions to be made.