In studies of this nature, the Job Demands-Resources (JD-R) model has been applied as the underlying theory (see Anasori et al., 2023; Barello et al., 2021; Farley et al., 2023; Klusmann et al., 2023). This model is used to understand how job characteristics foster employee well-being (Makumbe, 2023). According to the JD-R model, job characteristics can be categorised into job demands and job resources. Job demands refer to the physical, psychological, social or organisational aspects of the job that require sustained physical and emotional effort and are associated with specific physiological and psychological costs (Bakker et al., 2025). These job demands can include excessive workload and job insecurity (Zhou et al., 2022). On the other hand, job resources refer to the physical, psychological, social or organisational aspects of the job that are motivational and critical in achieving work goals (Bakker et al., 2025). Job resources can mitigate job demands and their associated physiological and psychological costs (Zhou et al., 2022). In the context of this study, job demands such as excessive workload constitute a form of WB, which results in physiological costs such as EE and psychological costs such as EH. Job resources such as SS are therefore important in reducing excessive job demands.

Workplace bullying is hostile social behaviour targeted at employees who, in most cases, are perceived to have less power in an organisation (Attell et al., 2017). In support of this, Podsiadly and Gamian-Wilk (2017) stated that WB involves an escalating process where an unbalanced power relationship develops between the target and the perpetrator. In this case, the perpetrator yields so much power that the target member is always on the receiving end. Workplace bullying can have devastating ramifications for workers (Farley et al., 2023). Some of these include anxiety, depression and post-traumatic stress disorder (Podsiadly & Gamian-Wilk, 2017) and EE (Escartín et al., 2021). Authors such as Hodgins et al. (2020) have identified suicidal ideation, chronic pain and sleep difficulties as negative outcomes of WB. These negative consequences are intensified when superiors do not respond to reported acts of bullying (Attell et al., 2017), as is the case in jurisdictions with high power distance (Hayat & Afshari, 2020). Ultimately, employees develop negative attitudes towards their work, which in turn affects productivity. Workplace bullying tactics include denigration, devaluation of professional roles, isolation, work overload, threats to personal and professional standing and verbal and/or nonverbal harassment (Attell et al., 2017).

Research on WB in the nursing profession is increasing in Africa (see Atingabili et al., 2025; Dapilah & Druye, 2024; Finchilescu et al., 2019; Mensah & Mpaun, 2024). This body of evidence indicates that the phenomenon has become a significant concern for practitioners and scholars. This literature shows that WB impacts various employee outcomes and manifests in different forms. For example, in a study in western Ghana, Dapilah and Druye (2024) found a direct link between WB and both the intention to leave and depression among nurses. Similarly, Mensah and Mpaun (2024), in a study involving nurses at Ghanaian public hospitals, discovered that WB can lead to psychological distress and decreased service quality. In South Africa, Madolo and Hloba (2023) reported, in a qualitative study of newly qualified nurses at Alfred Nzo Municipality, that experienced staff often ignored recently hired nurses. Furthermore, in a study conducted in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa, Pillay et al. (2023) found that workplace violence, a form of bullying, significantly impacted employee outcomes, including job satisfaction, career turnover intentions and mental health. Prior African studies have explored the role of various factors in the relationship between WB and employee outcomes. These factors include resilience and psychological distress (Mensah & Mpaun, 2024), SS (Finchilescu et al., 2019), conflict management and EE (Atingabili et al., 2025). Building on this body of evidence, this research examined the underlying role of SS and EE in either increasing or reducing hopelessness. This employee outcome variable remains underexplored in the African context.

Human beings are fundamentally future oriented despite the immense challenges that confront them in their life journey (Marchetti et al., 2023). Despite people having great expectations for their lives, a substantial minority view their future as gloomy and believe that nothing can alter this scenario. Such a situation is commonly referred to as hopelessness. In defining hopelessness, Sarigül et al. (2023) stated that it refers to emotional stress in which an individual believes that any attempt to effect change will be futile. Hopelessness impairs judgement ability and creates a negative evaluation of one’s life (Zhang et al., 2023). Hence, it is not surprising that some of the consequences of hopelessness include self-harm, anxiety, fear, depression and suicidal ideation (Sarigül et al., 2023). Marchetti et al. (2023) also stated that hopelessness is commonly associated with a variety of cognitions and emotions, such as sadness, lack of positive emotions, low self-esteem and demoralisation.

This is defined as a relationship or social interaction that includes aiding and caring for employees and solidifying relationships among employees, groups and team members (Sigursteinsdottir & Karlsdottir, 2022). Social support can be a crucial resource in protecting workers from the devastating effects of WB (Ariza-Montes et al., 2021). In the context of this research, support from an organisation buffers employees from the adverse effects of WB, such as feelings of hopelessness (Dobos et al., 2024). Authors such as Hayat and Afshari (2020) further argued that employees rely on organisational support to compensate for their diminished well-being because of WB. Social support mechanisms include employee assistance programmes, support groups and training and development programmes. These programmes can facilitate a solid relationship between the organisation and the employee. Employee assistance programmes enhance employees’ respect for the organisation, their emotional needs and self-confidence, leading to increased worker productivity (Sigursteinsdottir & Karlsdottir, 2022).

Emotional exhaustion stems from the three-component model of burnout, which comprises EE, depersonalisation and diminished personal accomplishment (Sheng et al., 2023). The concept of EE describes the feeling of being emotionally overextended and depleted. In supporting this, Klusmann et al. (2023) asserted that EE is the result of burnout, indicating feelings of extreme stress and the depletion of an individual’s emotional and physical resources. Furthermore, López-Cabarcos et al. (2019) stated that EE is the core dimension of burnout, which is characterised by feelings of fatigue, irritability, frustration and the depletion of employee resources. It is not surprising that EE is one of the most common psychological reactions to aggressive workplace behaviours (Escartín et al., 2021). This is because WB exerts extreme pressure on the employee, resulting in stress, frustration and a feeling of emptiness. Literature also suggests that EE occurs because of excessive job demands (Alola et al., 2019). When employees lack the necessary resources to meet job demands, they are more likely to experience EE. In the context of this study, long working hours and resource shortages in the healthcare industry can only exacerbate the EE of employees.

According to the job demands control theory, employees experience hopelessness when they are confronted with tasks that have high job demands, low job control and a lack of SS for extended periods (Zhang et al., 2023). In line with this, WB is characterised by isolation (lack of SS) and high workload (high job demand) (Attell et al., 2017). Hence, it can be reasoned that WB can trigger EH. Employee hopelessness is severe in jurisdictions where the government’s legislative framework to prevent bullying is weak or where employers do nothing about bullying. In line with this assertion, Hodgins et al. (2020) observed that few countries possess a robust framework with high-level coordination between the government and social partners to protect employees from workplace ill-treatment. This implies that in such an environment, the employees will be exposed to all forms of bullying. The absence of strong protection mechanisms will therefore exacerbate hopelessness. Previous research confirms that WB has consequences, including EH (Hodgins et al., 2020; Marchetti et al., 2023; Sarigül et al., 2023). This study proposes that:

Workplace bullying is an adverse social behaviour towards employees (Islam & Chaudhary, 2024). These adverse behaviours include threats to professional status, denigration and assigning meaningless work to employees. Such negative behaviours can trigger undesirable psychological and emotional responses in the victim. Hence, it is unsurprising that Attell et al. (2017) stated people who experience WB report high levels of burnout, which is an indicator of EE. Workplace bullying induces EE by taxing employees’ emotional resources (Escartín et al., 2021). This is supported by the Conservation of Resources Theory (COR), which states that EE is likely to occur in employees if there is actual or perceived resource loss (Sheng et al., 2023). Workplace bullying can take away employees’ emotional resources such as decision-making, self-esteem and social relationships. This can result in employees exhibiting withdrawal symptoms at work. Past research confirms that WB results in EE (Attell et al., 2017; Boudrias et al., 2021; Islam & Chaudhary, 2024). It can therefore be hypothesised that:

Emotional exhaustion is a long-term state of physical and psychological fatigue resulting from excessive personal and work responsibilities, as well as constant stress (Islam & Chaudhary, 2024). Emotional exhaustion is the result of extensive periods of WB at the workplace. These acts of bullying can include the isolation of an employee, sexual harassment, denigrating someone’s work and heavy workloads associated with tight deadlines. All this results in the development of employee EE and, consequently, hopelessness, especially if employees believe that nothing can change the status quo. Hence, this study argues that employee exhaustion has both direct and indirect impacts on EH. This is because WB triggers EH through EE. When employees are exhausted, they lose hope in themselves and the future. Employees become psychologically drained, such that they do not believe in positive changes in their situation. Past research confirms that employees’ exhaustion is a determinant of hopelessness (see Akova et al., 2022; De Berardis et al., 2023; Karagöl & Törenli Kaya, 2022). It can be proposed that:

Research on the role of SS in WB studies is still in its infancy (Ariza-Montes et al., 2021). Hence, this study sought to investigate the moderating role of SS on the relationship between WB and EH. In the context of this study, organisational SS refers to the extent to which an organisation meets the social and emotional needs of its employees (Xu et al., 2023). Social support behaviours include care and concern, positive appraisals and instrumental assistance (Finchilescu et al., 2019). Social support can be a crucial resource in protecting workers from the adverse effects of WB (Ariza-Montes et al., 2021). Employees who are exposed to WB experience high levels of stress and diminished well-being, which results in the depletion of personal resources; hence, they depend on organisational support for comfort. In the context of WB, SS can include listening to victims and offering suggestions to address the problem. It can therefore be hypothesised that:

Building on the above discussion, this study presents the following research model (Figure 1):

Workplace bullying was operationalised with a scale developed by Islam and Chaudhary (2024). A sample item from the scale was: ‘I am exposed to an unmanageable workload’.

Employee hopelessness was measured using items adapted from the work of (Attell et al., 2017). A sample item from the scale was: ‘The future seems hopeless to me, and I don’t believe things are changing for the better’.

The EE scale used in this study was based on the work of Islam and Chaudhary (2024). A sample item from the scale was: ‘I often feel exhausted’.

The SS scale used in this study was adapted from the items developed by Deeter-Schmelz and Ramsey (1997). A sample item from the scale was: ‘My work colleagues give me tangible assistance to deal with my work-related stress’.

According to Hair et al. (2012), discriminant validity can be evaluated using the Fornell–Larcker criterion. This method involves comparing the square root of the AVE values with the correlations between the latent variable and other constructs. For discriminant validity to hold, the square root of the AVE for each construct should exceed its correlation with any other construct, as demonstrated in Table 3.