Abstract
Orientation: Personnel performance plays a crucial role in the sustainability of any organisation, including military institutions. In this context, leadership and discipline are key elements determining organisational effectiveness. However, research specifically examining the influence of leadership, organisational culture and job placement on military personnel performance is still relatively rare.
Research purpose: This study aims to examine the extent to which transformational leadership, organisational culture and job placement influence work discipline and the performance of army personnel in the Korem 101 Antasari environment.
Motivation for the study: This study is motivated by the lack of empirical evidence regarding the influence of leadership, organisational culture and job placement on the performance of military personnel in the context of military organisations.
Research approach/design and method: A quantitative approach was implemented through an online survey of 180 Indonesian Army personnel. Data analysis focused on examining the direct influence of transformational leadership, organisational culture and job placement on discipline and performance.
Main findings: The research findings show positive and significant influence of transformational leadership, organisational culture and job placement on work discipline, but not on performance.
Practical/managerial implications: These findings indicate that strengthening leadership practices, maintaining a conducive organisational culture and optimising job placement have the potential to improve discipline among military personnel, which, in turn, can contribute to improved performance.
Contribution/value-add: This study extends the literature on military human resource management with empirical evidence from the Indonesian context, demonstrating the critical role of leadership and organisational aspects in shaping personnel discipline and performance.
Keywords: transformational leadership; organisational culture; job placement; work discipline; performance.
Introduction
The Indonesian National Army (TNI) plays an important role in the Indonesian military organisation as it has many functions and responsibilities. With the enactment of Law Number 34 of 2004, the TNI is constitutionally placed under the President for the deployment and use of military force. Meanwhile, in the formulation of defence policy, national defence strategy and administrative aspects, the TNI is coordinated by the Ministry of Defense of the Republic of Indonesia (2025). The constitutional mandate is realised by placing the Indonesian National Armed Forces in a strategic position to always play a role in facing threats, both military and non-military, while also contributing to the development of the nation and state. In times of peace, the attention of the TNI is required as a force to assist the government through various special tasks, also known as Military Operations Other Than War (MOOTW).
Personnel performance is an important factor an organisation must concern as it determines the overall performance of the organisation (Robbins & Judge, 2019). In the context of military organisations, especially in Indonesia, personnel performance also becomes a critical factor. As a military institution, TNI can be viewed as a ‘personnel-intensive’ institution because it is quite dominant in the deployment of personnel resources (Ryacudu, 2019). Furthermore, the success of a working unit of the Indonesian Army in carrying out its duties is highly dependent on the quality of its personnel rather than the equipment and facilities it has (Ryacudu, 2019). Thus, research on army personnel performance is deemed important to be performed.
Various factors can determine personnel performance. Numerous studies have investigated the factors influencing personnel performance. Several researchers have acknowledged leadership, organisational culture, job placement and work discipline as the key determinants of personnel performance. Arif et al. (2019) and Rumanti et al. (2022) stated that leadership and organisational culture affect personnel performance. Aminudin et al. (2022), Murtedjo and Suharningsih (2016) and Trisnayanthi et al. (2024) argued that organisational culture influences personnel performance, and Diyanah and Rokhman (2024) argued that leadership style has an impact on personnel performance. Similarly, Rahmawati et al. (2025), Norlatipah et al. (2022) and Rizkie and Suriansyah (2022) conceptualised transformational leadership as a significant factor determining personnel performance. Aminudin et al. (2022) and Martini et al. (2022) found that work discipline directly contributes to personnel performance. Furthermore, Weng et al. (2025) emphasised the effect of job placement on personnel performance.
From the previous description, it can be stated that several efforts have been made to study personnel performance by involving transformational leadership, organisational culture, job placement and work discipline. However, two main research gaps for the topic remain in existing literature. Firstly, there is no research simultaneously investigating the effect of transformational leadership, organisational culture, job placement and work discipline on personnel performance. Furthermore, the interrelationships among transformational leadership, organisational culture, job placement and work discipline in shaping personnel performance are found to be biased. More specifically, in the context of army organisation, work discipline requires a concern in consideration of the characteristics of this organisation, emphasising the importance of discipline. The system that applies to the army organisation is a command and mechanistic system that requires personnel to comply with organisational regulations and a strict authority hierarchy (Michaud et al., 2024). Thus, it is crucial for a study on personnel performance in an army organisation to understand the factors determining work discipline and its relationship to personnel performance.
Secondly, previous studies specifically focused on army personnel performance are found to be rare. Soldiers are essentially citizens who are specially prepared, both through training and weapons equipment, to carry out the function of national defence in facing all forms of military threats and armed threats. This is different from civil servants in other organisations, for example, civil servants whose primary duties are related to administrative activities and are more in the office. Consequently, the distinct nature of military and civilian roles leads to substantial differences in leadership patterns, organisational culture and work motivation, which in turn shape fundamentally different performance assessment frameworks for soldiers and civil servants.
To fill the gaps in the literature, this research aims to investigate army personnel performance by examining transformational leadership, work culture, job placement and work discipline in the Korem 101 Antasari work area – Indonesia. This research, more specifically, aims to answer the following questions:
- Do transformational leadership, work culture, job placement and work discipline affect army personnel performance?
- Do transformational leadership, work culture and job placement affect work discipline?
This study is grounded in a positivist epistemological orientation, which assumes that social phenomena can be objectively observed, measured and analysed through empirical data. The research adopts a deductive approach, drawing on established theories, namely transformational leadership theory, social identity theory and person-job fit theory, to test hypothesised relationships among leadership, organisational factors, work discipline and personnel performance. Within this paradigm, leadership behaviours, organisational culture, job placement, discipline and performance are treated as observable constructs that can be quantitatively measured and statistically examined. Accordingly, this study employs a quantitative research design to explain causal relationships and generalisable patterns within the context of an army organisation.
This research focuses on army personnel in the Korem 101 Antasari work area – Indonesia. Military Resort Command 101/Antasari, abbreviated as Korem 101/Antasari, is a Territorial Command under Kodam VI/Mulawarman and has a duty area covering the South Kalimantan Province, which is divided into 1 Makorem, 11 Kodim and 2 Yonif. The task of a Korem is to organise capacity building, strength and territorial development to prepare for defence on land and maintain the security of the Korem area to support the main tasks of the Kodam in its area or responsibility.
Literature review
Personnel performance
Employee performance is defined as the degree to which individuals achieve expected work outcomes in accordance with assigned tasks, typically assessed through indicators such as the quality and quantity of work produced (Vuong & Nguyen, 2022). Individual job performance can be understood as the extent to which an employee successfully completes assigned duties, measured by both the quality and quantity of work outcomes in accordance with job responsibilities and organisational expectations (Memon et al., 2023). Referring to the opinions of a number of experts, researchers conclude that performance is the result of the task implementation of an individual, which in this study, was measured through quality, quantity, timeliness, effectiveness and independence.
Various factors determine personnel performance. Numerous studies have investigated the factors influencing personnel performance. Different from previous studies, this study, to explain army personnel performance, has integrated person-job fit theory (Bui et al., 2017), social identity theory (Al-Swidi et al., 2021) and transformational leadership theory (Gary, 2006). Based upon social identity theory, the thoughts and behaviour of an individual in the context of work can be seen as a reflection of a person performance, and are determined by a person’s membership in a group (Al-Swidi et al., 2021). In the context of the army organisation, work discipline becomes one of the characteristics of the organisation. The army personnel organisation is required to have high work discipline in consideration to the implemented command and mechanistic systems (Michaud et al., 2024). For this reason, referring to social identity theory, the army personnel organisation will try to show work discipline as part of the organisation, which will eventually affect their performance. Furthermore, organisational culture is an essential factor that determines performance and work discipline from the perspective of social identity theory considering that a membership of an individual in an organisation can make him or her interact and carry out the culture of the organisation (Al-Swidi et al., 2021). In the context of an army organisation, an employee tends to be required to carry out the organisational culture considering the command and mechanistic characteristics of the organisation (Michaud et al., 2024). Based on transformational leadership theory, transformational leadership will play an important role in determining employee performance and work discipline because this type of leadership is oriented to motivating, influencing and encouraging employees to show innovative behaviour to support the organisation (Martinez & Leija, 2023). In the context of an army organisation, the role of transformational leadership is increasingly important considering that in a command system, leadership has an absolute role in determining what personnel must do (Michaud et al., 2024). Person-job fit theory argues that employee performance and work discipline are closely related to the appropriateness of employee characteristics to the job requirements (Bui et al., 2017). In this context, job placement plays an important role in determining work discipline and employee performance, considering that it determines the appropriateness of employee characteristics to the job (Sari & Sa’adah, 2019). Furthermore, in the context of the army organisation, personnel do not have a high opportunity to choose a job to ensure their suitability for the job; conversely, the organisation determines the choice of personnel through job placement. Based on this description, this study developed an employee performance model that involves work discipline, organisational culture, transformational leadership and job placement. Figure 1 illustrates the proposed conceptual model.
 |
FIGURE 1: Conceptual model of transformational leadership, organisational culture, job placement, work discipline and personnel performance. |
|
Transformational leadership
Leadership is the process of influencing and motivating others to work towards shared goals (Liden et al., 2025). Transformational leadership comprises behaviours that inspire and motivate followers through idealized influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation and individualised consideration, encouraging followers to rise above self-interest and perform beyond expectations (Bakker et al., 2023). Leaders with transformational behaviours encourage: (1) a shared sense of purpose; (2) emphasise the organisation’s objectives over personal interests; and (3) actively involve followers in achieving goals (Deinert et al., 2015). Robbins and Judge (2019) explained that a leader can transform personnel through four components: idealised influence, inspirational motivation, intellectual stimulation and individualised consideration. Based on this explanation, it can be stated that transformational leadership refers to a leader’s ability to build awareness among subordinates of the importance of work values, expand and improve needs beyond personal interests and encourage change towards mass interests, including personal interests.
Transformational leadership shows the characteristics needed to improve employee performance and work discipline. This is because transformational leaders can motivate, inspire and guide their subordinates. In the transformational leadership approach, leaders play a central role in increasing employee motivation, meeting their needs and treating them humanely. Transformational leaders are also able to elevate employees to a higher level of morality and motivation. They are not only concerned with personal interests, but also with greater interests, such as the success of the organisation (Budiwati et al., 2020). Transformational leadership involves sharing power with subordinates, developing their abilities and self-confidence and creating independent teamwork (Robbins & Judge, 2019). Empirically, several studies have proven the positive influence of transformational leadership on personnel performance (e.g. Norlatipah et al., 2022; Rizkie & Suriansyah, 2022; Rumanti et al., 2022). Furthermore, empirical research supports the influence of transformational leadership on disciplined work behaviours; recent studies have shown that transformational leadership positively correlates with higher levels of employee discipline and adherence to organisational norms (Basir, 2023). Based on this explanation, the first and second hypotheses of this research are formulated as follows:
H1: Transformational leadership positively and significantly influences personnel performance.
H2: Transformational leadership positively and significantly influences work discipline.
Organisational culture
Chalmers et al. (2025) stated that organisational culture consists of the beliefs and expectations shared by members of an organisation, and these shared values and norms influence staff attitudes and behaviour. Organisational culture is a habit that employees in an organisation repeatedly carry out. Employees often comply with shared organisational norms because these norms become internalised and perceived as appropriate behaviour, guiding actions even in the absence of formal sanctions or enforcement mechanisms (Bicchieri et al., 2023). Based on the definition of organisational culture expressed by several experts, it can be stated that work culture is the things commonly performed by teachers in working based on work procedures and various rules that must be followed by teachers in carrying out their duties. Organisational culture can be measured through the indicators of attitudes towards work and behaviour while working. Organisational culture is one of the factors whose important roles are frequently identified in determining the behaviours of employees from the perspective of social identity theory. Organisational culture plays an important role in shaping members’ behaviour, as the shared beliefs, values and expectations within an organisation serve as a reference that guides attitudes and actions towards achieving established organisational goals and work outcomes (Chalmers et al., 2025). Thus, if the organisational culture is good, then the members of the organisation are good and qualified people. In other words, organisational culture has a role in shaping a person’s performance (Robbins & Judge, 2019). Empirically, several studies have shown the positive effect of organisational culture on personnel performance (Aminudin et al., 2022; Arif et al., 2019; Murtedjo & Suharningsih, 2016; Rumanti et al., 2022; Trisnayanthi et al., 2024). Furthermore, organisational culture also has a positive effect on work discipline. This is because organisational culture provides an identity for its members to behave based upon the principles and values of the organisation. If the members of the organisation are able to interpret and understand the principles and values of the company correctly and adequately, then behaviour to be realised will be in line with the principles of organisational values, thus resulting in good work discipline behaviour among the members of the organisation (Bogale & Debela, 2024). Based on this explanation, the third and fourth hypotheses of this research are formulated as follows:
H3: Organisational culture positively and significantly influences personnel performance.
H4: Organisational culture positively and significantly influences work discipline.
Job placement
In human resource management, placing employees in positions where their skills, knowledge and qualifications align with job requirements reflects the concept of person-job fit, which supports effective task performance and organisational goals (Sekiguchi & Huber, 2011). Job placement means assigning employees to positions that match their skills, abilities and professionalism, enabling them to perform their tasks effectively (Hasan et al., 2021). Based on the opinions of experts, it can be stated that job placement is a person’s position in an organisation that is determined by the qualifications possessed by the individual concerned.
Person-job fit theory reveals that the suitability of employee characteristics to their jobs will determine positive behaviour, such as work discipline and employee performance (Bui et al., 2017). In this regard, job placement is a factor that determines the suitability of employee characteristics for their jobs. Placement practices are significantly related to employee performance outcomes; effective placement supports clearer role expectations and enhances productivity (Kavoo-Linge & Kiruri, 2013). A study has thoroughly demonstrated significantly positive correlations between person-job fit and employees’ job performance (Weng et al., 2025). Proper job placement promotes rule compliance and constructive behaviour, leading to higher work discipline (Kristof-Brown et al., 2005). Effective placement practices contribute to clearer role expectations and productivity, which in turn support disciplined work behaviour (Kavoo-Linge & Kiruri, 2013). Given this, the fifth and sixth hypotheses are formulated as follows:
H5: Job placement positively and significantly influences personnel performance.
H6: Job placement positively and significantly influences work discipline.
Work discipline
In human resource management practice, work discipline is operationalised through various organisational practices or indicators which are: (1) adherence to rules and procedures, (2) attendance and punctuality, (3) supervisory control, (4) reward systems, (5) corrective actions and (6) employee relations (Armstrong & Taylor, 2023). These practices collectively reflect both behavioural compliance and management mechanisms used to maintain workplace order and performance. Several researchers have acknowledged work discipline as one of the key determinants of personnel performance. Aminudin et al. (2022) and Martini et al. (2022) identified that work discipline contributes directly to personnel performance. Good work discipline in a person will have a positive impact on their performance. The better the discipline, the better the performance. The study found that implementing an effective disciplinary system encourages employees to adhere to organisational policies and increases their motivation and productivity, which is associated with improved overall performance (Li et al., 2024). Therefore, the seventh hypothesis is formulated as follows:
H7: Work discipline positively and significantly influences personnel performance.
Research methodology
This study is grounded in a positivist research paradigm, which assumes that social phenomena can be objectively measured and analysed using empirical data. Consistent with this paradigm, the study adopts a quantitative, deductive approach to test hypothesised relationships among transformational leadership, organisational culture, job placement, work discipline and personnel performance. The research employed an explanatory cross-sectional survey design with an associative framework to examine both direct and indirect relationships among the study variables. Data were collected through a structured online questionnaire administered to Indonesian Army personnel stationed in the Korem 101 Antasari work area. The population consisted of 325 personnel, from which a sample of 180 respondents was selected using simple random sampling, based on the Slovin formula with a 5% margin of error. All constructs were measured using previously validated indicators adapted from established literature and assessed on a five-point Likert scale. Data analysis was conducted using partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM), which is appropriate for exploratory and predictive research involving complex models and latent variables. The analysis followed a two-stage procedure, comprising measurement model evaluation and structural model testing. Ethical considerations were addressed by ensuring voluntary participation, informed consent and respondent anonymity throughout the data collection process.
Variables and measures
This research involved five main latent variables: personnel performance, transformational leadership, organisational culture, job placement and work discipline. Each construct was measured using multiple items adapted from previously established instruments reported in the literature. All items were operationalised using a five-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree), which is commonly employed in organisational and human resource management research. To ensure content validity, the items for each construct were drawn from prior studies in which they had been empirically tested. The number of items and their original sources are presented in Table 1. Furthermore, the psychometric properties of the measurement instruments were evaluated in this study through measurement model assessment, including internal consistency reliability (Cronbach’s alpha [CA] and composite reliability [CR]) and convergent validity (average variance extracted [AVE]), as reported in the Results section.
Prior to using the instrument in the main survey, a pilot test was conducted involving 30 respondents. The pilot test results showed that all items had corrected item-total correlations above 0.361, which implies a moderate–strong relationship. Furthermore, the results showed that all main constructs achieved CA values above 0.60, indicating acceptable internal consistency reliability. Construct validity was subsequently assessed in the main study through measurement model evaluation.
Data collection
The population in this research comprised TNI personnel in the Korem 101 Antasari work area. There are 325 TNI personnel in the Korem 101 Antasari work area. The sample size in the research was determined using the Slovin formula with a margin of error of 5%. The final sample size of this research was 180 army personnel from the Korem 101 Antasari work area, and it was determined by using a simple random sampling technique. Table 2 shows the demographic profile of the sample.
| TABLE 2: The demographic profile of the sample (N = 180). |
Data were collected through an online survey, and the questionnaires were distributed via Google Forms that included an explanation that respondent data would be kept confidential, and respondents were asked to fill out the questionnaire according to actual conditions. The random sampling technique began with the formation of a sampling frame, a list of all members of the population. Then, it continued by creating random numbers for each existing element. Subsequently, the first sample needed was taken.
Data analysis
This study adopted PLS-SEM as the analytical approach. Partial least squares structural equation modelling was selected because it is suitable for analysing complex research models with multiple latent constructs and indicators, is robust with relatively moderate sample sizes, and is appropriate for exploratory and prediction-oriented research (Hair et al., 2019, 2021; Mardani et al., 2017). The PLS-SEM analysis was conducted in two stages: assessment of the measurement model (outer model) and assessment of the structural model (inner model). The measurement model was evaluated prior to testing the structural relationships to ensure the adequacy of the measurement instruments. For reflective constructs, the measurement model assessment followed established PLS-SEM guidelines (Hair et al., 2021). Indicator reliability was evaluated using outer loadings, where values ≥ 0.708 were considered ideal. Indicators with loadings between 0.50 and 0.70 were retained only when their removal did not improve CR or AVE, and when they were theoretically meaningful. Internal consistency reliability was assessed using CR, and CA with values above 0.70 indicates satisfactory reliability for established constructs, while values above 0.60 were considered acceptable for exploratory research. Convergent validity was assessed using the AVE, where values ≥ 0.50 indicated that the construct explained more than half of the variance of its indicators. Discriminant validity was evaluated using the heterotrait–monotrait (HTMT) ratio. Discriminant validity was established when the square root of AVE for each construct exceeded its correlations with other constructs and when HTMT values were below the recommended threshold. All measurement model results are reported in the Results section.
Ethical considerations
Ethical clearance to conduct this study was obtained from the Military Resort Command (No. B/853/VI/Korem101/ANTASARI/2024).
Results
Assessment of the measurement model (outer model analysis)
The outer model value or the correlation between the construct and the variable in the initial model and modification 1 still did not meet convergent validity criteria given a few indicators that had loading factor values below 0.50. Model modification was carried out by removing indicators with loading factor values below 0.50. In modified model 2 (fit model), it showed that all loading factors had values above 0.60; as a result, the constructs for all variables were no longer eliminated from the model (see Table 3). For the AVE value, all variables were above 0.50 meeting the recommended criteria. Thus, the validity criteria were met. Table 3 also shows the final loading AVE values of each construct. Although several indicators exhibited outer loadings between 0.50 and 0.70, they were retained in the final measurement model. Following PLS-SEM guidelines (Hair et al., 2019, 2021), indicators within this range may be maintained when CR and AVE exceed the recommended thresholds. In this study, all constructs achieved AVE values above 0.50 and CR values above 0.70 (Table 3), and the removal of these indicators did not lead to substantive improvements in model quality. Therefore, the indicators were retained to preserve the theoretical integrity of the constructs.
Table 3 also shows the CR and CA values of each construct. The analysis results show that each construct meets reliability requirements. This is evidenced by the CR value exceeding the 0.70 threshold and the CA value exceeding 0.60. Furthermore, before assessing the structural (inner) model, the adequacy of the measurement (outer) model was evaluated. Convergent validity was assessed using the AVE. As shown in Table 3, all constructs achieved AVE values above 0.50, indicating that the latent variables explain more than half of the variance of their indicators. Internal consistency reliability was evaluated using CA and CR. All constructs exceeded the minimum recommended thresholds, suggesting acceptable to good reliability (Hair et al., 2021). Discriminant validity was confirmed using the HTMT ratio, with all values below the conservative threshold of 0.85 (Table 4). These results indicate that the measurement model is valid and reliable, allowing subsequent assessment of the structural model.
| TABLE 4: Discriminant validity: Assessment using heterotrait–monotrait ratio. |
Assessment of the structural model (inner model analysis) and hypothesis testing
Table 5 presents results of the structural (inner) model analysis and hypothesis testing. Each structural path explicitly linked to its corresponding hypothesis (H1–H7) to facilitate interpretation of the findings. The findings indicate that three hypotheses were supported. Organisational culture (H4), transformational leadership (H2) and job placement (H6) had significant effects on work discipline. However, transformational leadership (H1), organisational culture (H3), job placement (H5) and work discipline (H7) did not have significant effects on personnel performance. These results suggest that work discipline acts as an outcome of selected organisational factors rather than a direct determinant of personnel performance. This pattern may reflect the hierarchical and regulated nature of military organisations, where discipline is strongly shaped by organisational mechanisms but does not automatically translate into higher individual performance. Specifically, Hypothesis 1, which proposed that transformational leadership would influence personnel performance, was not supported (β = 0.112, t = 0.393, p = 0.694). Hypothesis 2, predicting the effect of transformational leadership on work discipline, was supported (β = −0.407, t = 2.973, p = 0.003). Hypothesis 3, which examined the influence of organisational culture on personnel performance, was not supported (β = −0.097, t = 0.402, p = 0.687). In contrast, Hypothesis 4 was supported, indicating that organisational culture significantly influenced work discipline (β = 0.668, t = 6.570, p < 0.001). Hypothesis 5, proposing the effect of job placement on personnel performance, was not supported (β = −0.019, t = 0.045, p = 0.964), whereas Hypothesis 6 was supported, showing a significant effect of job placement on work discipline (β = 0.688, t = 4.857, p < 0.001). Finally, Hypothesis 7, which examined the effect of work discipline on personnel performance, was not supported (β = 0.442, t = 1.343, p = 0.179). The explanatory power of the structural model was assessed using the coefficient of determination (R2). The results indicate that the model explains a substantial proportion of variance in work discipline (R2 = 0.847; adjusted R2 = 0.844), suggesting strong predictive accuracy for this construct. However, the variance explained in personnel performance was relatively low, which is consistent with the non-significant direct effects observed in the structural paths.
| TABLE 5: Direct path coefficients (hypotheses H1–H7). |
Discussion
Theoretical implications
This study aimed to examine the effects of transformational leadership, organisational culture and job placement on work discipline and personnel performance within a military organisational context. By integrating social identity theory, transformational leadership theory and person-job fit theory, this study sought to clarify the mechanisms through which organisational factors shape discipline and performance among army personnel. The findings provide several theoretical and practical insights, particularly regarding the distinct role of work discipline as an outcome of organisational mechanisms rather than a direct predictor of individual performance. This study contributes to the theory by integrating social identity theory, transformational leadership and job-person fit theory to explain work discipline and personnel performance in the context of army organisation. The findings of this study indicated that the integration of these theories could explain work discipline but could not explain personnel performance. Overall, these results demonstrate that organisational culture, transformational leadership and job placement play a stronger role in shaping work discipline than in directly enhancing personnel performance. More clearly, the theoretical discussion of each finding will be presented in the following paragraphs.
The research revealed that transformational leadership had no significant effect on the performance of TNI personnel in the Korem 101 / Antasari work area. This finding is not in line with previous studies, such as (Rizkie & Suriansyah, 2022), Budiwati et al. (2020), Norlatipah et al. (2022) and Rahmawati et al. (2025). The insignificant influence of transformational leadership on the performance of TNI personnel in the Korem 101 / Antasari work area is in relation to a strong determination and desire of each personnel already to provide the best performance in carrying out their respective duties and responsibilities. Hence, no matter how transformational leadership is applied by the leader, the personnel will still perform at their best. The personnel no longer need to get detailed directions on how they should carry out their duties and how they should behave. In addition, the personnel do not need a figure as a role model because the personnel principally already have a high awareness of becoming perfect and ideal soldiers in carrying out their duties. These nonsignificant findings highlight the unique characteristics of military organisations, where formal discipline and role compliance are institutionalised and may not directly translate into performance variability.
The research showed a positive and significant effect of transformational leadership on the work discipline of TNI personnel in the Korem 101/Antasari work area. In other words, if the leader’s transformational leadership changes, the work discipline of TNI personnel in the Korem 101/Antasari work area will also change. The findings of this study align with previous evidence indicating a positive and significant link between transformational leadership and employees’ compliance with mandatory rules and procedures (Wu et al., 2022).
The research found that organisational culture had no significant effect on the performance of TNI personnel in the Korem 101/Antasari work area. The results of this study are not in line with the previous study by Murtedjo and Suharningsih (2016), which conceptualised that organisational culture contributes to performance. Likewise, Arif et al. (2019), Rumanti et al. (2022) and Aminudin et al. (2022) also revealed that organisational culture contributes significantly to performance. Regarding this finding, it is assumed that the organisational culture in the Korem 101/Antasari work area is not strong enough to influence the performance behaviour of TNI in the Korem 101/Antasari work area. Based on the statement of Robbins and Judge (2019), the author assumed that the organisational culture of the TNI in the Korem 101/Antasari working area is undergoing changes or improvements because of a change in leadership in which it simultaneously also requires adjustments to the new values instilled by the leadership; hence, it does not have a greater influence on the work discipline of all personnel.
Furthermore, the research revealed that organisational culture directly had a significant effect on the work discipline of TNI personnel in the Korem 101/Antasari work area. It indicates that a change in organisational culture will lead to a change in the work discipline of TNI personnel in the Korem 101/Antasari work area. The findings of this study are in line with research revealing that organisational culture, manifested through shared values and norms, shapes employee behaviour and attitudes within organisational settings (Zhang et al., 2023). Similarly, the research of Hidayati and Suriansyah (2022) revealed that work discipline can also be formed by the organisational culture applied in an institution or agency.
The research found that job placement had no significant effect on the performance of TNI personnel in the Korem 101/Antasari work area. The results of this study are not in line with previous studies by Akanni and Oduaran (2022) that person-job fit is positively associated with beneficial work outcomes. In the context of this research, it was found that job placement does not affect performance, as the TNI personnel in the Korem 101/Antasari work area are highly motivated to perform at their best. Wherever they are placed, they are still able to show maximum performance.
The research found that job placement has a positive and significant effect on the work discipline of TNI personnel in the Korem 101/Antasari work area. This indicates that a change in job placement can also lead to changes in the work discipline of TNI personnel in the Korem 101/Antasari work area. The findings of this study are in line with the research of Kavoo-Linge and Kiruri (2013) revealing that effective job placement practices influence employee outcomes by clarifying role expectations and improving productivity. Similarly, research by Kristof-Brown et al. (2005) found that job placement influences work discipline.
The research showed that work discipline does not have a significant effect on the performance of TNI personnel in the Korem 101/Antasari work area. This finding was not in line with the findings of Martini et al. (2022) and Aminudin et al. (2022). In the context of this research, this finding relates to the fact that work discipline is a minimum standard that must be upheld by TNI personnel in the Korem 101/Antasari work area. Personnel of TNI tend to have good work discipline, although he or she has not had good performance. This has made work discipline not to have a significant effect on personnel performance.
This research demonstrated that the integration of social identity theory, transformational leadership and job-person fit theory was not proven effective to explain personnel performance in the context of army organisation. These findings indicate the need for further investigation. Future research should identify relevant contextual factors that may moderate the relationships amongst constructs derived from social identity theory, transformational leadership and job-person fit theory in explaining personnel performance. The preceding discussion on the non-significant effects of these factors may serve as an initial basis for identifying potential moderating variables, particularly within the context of military organisations. The explanation in the previous paragraphs explaining the insignificance of the factors in explaining the personnel performance can be a starting point to identify the moderating factors.
Practical implications
From a theoretical perspective, this study extends prior research by integrating social identity theory, transformational leadership and job-person fit theory within a military setting. Unlike studies conducted in civilian or corporate contexts, the findings suggest that these theoretical frameworks are more effective in explaining work discipline than individual performance outcomes in highly regulated organisations. The research findings revealed that transformational leadership, organisational culture and job placement had a direct effect on work discipline of TNI personnel at Korem 101/Antasari; therefore, it is important to consider the proper leadership style, organisational culture and job placement to maximise work discipline. This study provides practical implications for army organisation leaders as well as policy implications for the government.
For army organisation leaders, this study has implications for the importance of implementing transformational leadership. It is critical for leaders to study and consistently apply the characteristics of transformational leadership. Army organisation leaders also need to ensure a good organisational culture in their organisations. Organisational culture can be manifested in the form of a code of ethics or values. Leaders need to ensure that the code of ethics and values representing a good organisational culture are consistently implemented. Furthermore, leaders need to ensure that personnel placement is based on the suitability of employee characteristics to the job. In other words, leaders need to ensure that the principle of ‘the right person in the right place’ (i.e. the principle of placing the right individual in the appropriate position) is appropriately implemented.
For the government, the study’s results yield several policy implications. Firstly, the government needs to set management standards for army organisations, including leadership competency standards involving transformational leadership characteristics, organisational culture standards and job placement standards. It is critical for the government to periodically evaluate the implementation of these standards and make continuous improvements. Secondly, the government needs to provide education and coaching as well as adequate resource support for the army organisation to realise good transformational leadership, organisational culture and job placement.
Despite its contributions, this study has several limitations. Firstly, the research was conducted within a single military command area, which may limit the generalisability of the findings to other military or non-military contexts. Secondly, the cross-sectional design restricts causal inference. Future studies may consider longitudinal designs and explore moderating variables such as organisational commitment, intrinsic motivation, or leadership climate to better explain personnel performance in military settings.
The strong explanatory power of the model for work discipline, contrasted with its limited ability to explain personnel performance, further supports the argument that performance outcomes in military organisations are shaped by factors beyond individual leadership, culture and job placement, including institutional constraints and standardised performance criteria. Therefore, future research should incorporate and empirically test these contextual and institutional factors within models of TNI personnel performance to enhance the model’s predictive capability and explanatory depth.
Conclusion
Based on the research objectives and the data analysis, several conclusions can be drawn. Firstly, there is no significant and positive effect of transformational leadership, organisational culture, job placement and work discipline on performance. Secondly, there is a significant and positive effect of transformational leadership, organisational culture and job placement on work discipline. Although this research yielded several important findings, the results should be interpreted with certain limitations in mind. This research was conducted in a military environment in Indonesia; thus, the results cannot be applied to other contexts that have very different characteristics compared to the Indonesian military environment. Future research should implement and develop the model in a context that is different from those in Indonesia.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to express their sincere gratitude to Korem 101/Antasari and all participating TNI personnel for their kind cooperation and support during the data collection process. Their valuable contributions through participation in the survey have been instrumental in the completion of this research. While their contribution was important, it did not meet the criteria for authorship. This article is based on research originally conducted as part of Ari Aryanto’s doctoral thesis titled ‘Pengaruh kepemimpinan transformasional, budaya organisasi dan kepuasan kerja dengan motivasi kerja sebagai variabel mediasi terhadap kinerja anggota TNI (Studi di wilayah kerja Korem 101/Antasari)’ [The influence of transformational leadership, organizational culture, and job satisfaction with work motivation as a mediating variable on the performance of Indonesian army personnel (A study in the Korem 101/Antasari work area)], submitted to the Faculty of Economic and Business, Department of Management, Lambung Mangkurat University, in 2024. The thesis was supervised by Ahmad Alim Bachri, Ahmad Rifani, and Rini Rahmawati. The manuscript has since been revised and adapted for journal publication. As the thesis is not yet completed, the document is currently unavailable online.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.
CRediT authorship contribution
Ari Aryanto: Conceptualisation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Software, Visualisation, Writing – original draft and Writing – review & editing. Ahmad Alim Bachri: Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Supervision and Writing – review & editing. Ahmad Rifani: Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Supervision, Writing – original draft and Writing – review & editing. Rini Rahmawati: Investigation, Methodology, Supervision, Writing – original draft and Writing – review & editing. All authors reviewed the article, contributed to the discussion of results, approved the final version for submission and publication and take responsibility for the integrity of its findings.
Funding information
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.
Data availability
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author upon reasonable request. Because of the confidentiality agreement with the institution and participants, the raw data are not publicly shared.
Disclaimer
The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and are the product of professional research. They do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency or that of the publisher. The authors are responsible for this article’s results, findings, and content.
References
Akanni, A.A., & Oduaran, C.A. (2022). Person–job fit and work–life balance of female nurses with cultural competence as a mediator: Evidence from Nigeria. Frontiers of Nursing, 9(1), 81–86. https://doi.org/10.2478/fon-2022-0010
Al-Swidi, A.K., Gelaidan, H.M., & Saleh, R.M. (2021). The joint impact of green human resource management, leadership, and organizational culture on employees’ green behaviour and organisational environmental performance. Journal of Cleaner Production, 316(6), 128112. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2021.128112
Aminudin, A., Suriansyah, S., & Asniwati, J. (2022). The effect of organizational culture and spiritual quotient on job satisfaction and performance of state high school teachers in Jekan Raya District, Palangka Raya. International Journal of Social Science and Human Research, 5(9), 4338–4346. https://doi.org/10.47191/ijsshr/v5-i9-47
Armstrong, M., & Taylor, S. (2023). Armstrong’s handbook of human resource management practice: A guide to the theory and practice of people management (16th ed.). Kogan Page.
Arif, S., Zainudin, Z., & Hamid, A. (2019). Influence of leadership, organizational culture, work motivation, and job satisfaction on senior high school principals’ performance in Medan City. Budapest International Research and Critics Institute Journal, 2(4), 239–254. https://doi.org/10.33258/birci.v2i4.619
Bakker, A.B., Hetland, J., Olsen, O.K., & Espevik, R. (2023). Daily transformational leadership: A source of inspiration for follower performance? European Management Journal, 41(5), 700–708. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.emj.2022.04.004
Basir, A. (2023). The influence of transformational leadership style, organizational climate, and work discipline on employee performance. International Journal of Economics Development Research, 4(3), 1396–1410. https://doi.org/10.37385/ijedr.v5i1.4303
Bicchieri, C., Muldoon, R., & Sontuoso, A. (2023). Social norms. In E.N. Zalta & U. Nodelman (Eds.), The Stanford encyclopedia of philosophy (Winter 2023 ed.) (pp. 1–31). Stanford University.
Bogale, A.T., & Debela, K.L. (2024). Organizational culture: A systematic review. Cogent Business & Management, 11(1), 2340129. https://doi.org/10.1080/23311975.2024.2340129
Budiwati, S.N., Prayinto, E.H., Limgiani, & Suharto. (2020). The influence of transformational leadership styles and compensation on employee performance mediated by job satisfaction. SSRG International Journal of Economics and Management Studies, 7(9), 62–70. https://doi.org/10.14445/23939125/IJEMS-V7I9P108
Bui, H.T., Zeng, Y., & Higgs, M. (2017). The role of person–job fit in the relationship between transformational leadership and job engagement. Journal of Managerial Psychology, 32(1), 373–386. https://doi.org/10.1108/JMP-05-2016-0144
Chalmers, R., Marras, A., & Brannan, G.D. (2025). Organizational culture. StatPearls Publishing.
Deinert, A., Homan, A.C., Boer, D., Voelpel, S.C., & Gutermann, D. (2015). Transformational leadership sub-dimensions and their link to leaders’ personality and performance. The Leadership Quarterly, 26(6), 1095–1120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2015.08.001
Diyanah, I., & Rokhman, M. (2024). The influence of leadership style and organizational culture on employee performance mediated by work motivation in a multinational company in Indonesia. Asian Journal of Economics, Business and Accounting, 24(4), 225–234. https://doi.org/10.9734/ajeba/2024/v24i41275
Gary, A.Y. (2006). Leadership in organizations (6th ed.). Pearson/Prentice Hall.
Hair, J.F., Hult, G.T.M., Ringle, C.M., Sarstedt, M., Danks, N.P., & Ray, S. (2021). An introduction to structural equation modeling. In Partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) using R (pp. 1–29). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-80519-7_1
Hair, J.F., Risher, J.J., Sarstedt, M., & Ringle, C.M. (2019). When to use and how to report the results of PLS-SEM. European Business Review, 31(1), 2–24. https://doi.org/10.1108/EBR-11-2018-0203
Hasan, T., Jawaad, M., & Butt, I. (2021). The influence of person–job fit, work–life balance, and work conditions on organizational commitment: Investigating the mediation of job satisfaction. Sustainability, 13(12), 6622. https://doi.org/10.3390/su13126622
Hasibuan, M.S.P. (2019). Manajemensumberdayamanusia [Human resource management]. Bumi Aksara.
Hidayati, R., & Suriansyah, A. (2022). Correlation among school principal leadership, work culture, and work motivation toward job satisfaction. International Journal of Social Science and Human Research, 5(6), 2439–2446. https://doi.org/10.47191/ijsshr/v5-i6-69
Kavoo-Linge, T., & Kiruri, J.K. (2013). The effect of placement practices on employee performance in small service firms in the IT sector in Kenya. International Journal of Business and Social Science, 4(15), 213–219.
Kristof-Brown, A.L., Zimmerman, R.D., & Johnson, E.C. (2005). Consequences of individuals’ fit at work: A meta-analysis. Personnel Psychology, 58(2), 281–342. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-6570.2005.00672.x
Li, W., Duraipandi, O., Junyi, L., Biao, L., & Sichen, L. (2024). The impact of employee discipline on organizational performance. International Journal of Computational and Experimental Science and Engineering, 10(4), 2030–2037. https://doi.org/10.22399/ijcesen.3728
Liden, R.C., Wang, X., & Wang, Y. (2025). The evolution of leadership: Past insights, present trends, and future directions. Journal of Business Research, 186(1), 115036. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2024.115036
Mardani, A., Streimikiene, D., Zavadskas, E.K., Cavallaro, F., Nilashi, M., Jusoh, A., & Zare, H. (2017). Application of SEM to solve environmental sustainability problems. Sustainability, 9(10), 1–65. https://doi.org/10.3390/su9101814
Martinez, S.-A., & Leija, N. (2023). Distinguishing servant leadership from transactional and transformational leadership. Advances in Developing Human Resources, 25(3), 141–188. https://doi.org/10.1177/15234223231175845
Martini, M., Karyono Ibnu, A., & Metroyadi, M. (2022). The correlation among teacher professionalism, work motivation and work discipline on teacher performance. International Journal of Social Science and Human Research, 5(6), 2230–2235.
Memon, A.H., Khahro, S.H., Memon, N.A., Memon, Z.A., & Mustafa, A. (2023). Relationship between job satisfaction and employee performance in construction industry. Sustainability, 15(11), 8699. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15118699
Michaud, K., Barbeau-Julien, K., & Slinger, M. (2024). Transformational leadership, well-being, morale, and readiness. Military Psychology, 37(2), 117–126. https://doi.org/10.1080/08995605.2024.2319522
Mondy, R.W., & Martocchio, J.J. (2016). Human resource management (14th ed.). Pearson.
Murtedjo, M., & Suharningsih, S. (2016). Contribution to cultural organization, working motivation and job satisfaction on the performance of primary school teacher. International Journal of Higher Education, 5(4), 10351. https://doi.org/10.5430/ijhe.v5n4p86
Ndraha, T. (2020). Teori budayaorganisasi [Organizational culture theory]. Rineka Cipta.
Norlatipah, Saleh, M., & Darmiyati. (2022). Correlation among principal transformational leadership, work spirit, work commitment and teacher performance at state junior high schools in Balangan Regency. International Journal of Social Science and Human Research, 5(6), 2428–2438. https://doi.org/10.47191/ijsshr/v5-i6-68
Rahmawati, R., Aryanto, A., & Noor, M.A.A. (2025). The influence of transformational leadership and quality of work life on soldier performance with organizational commitment as a mediating variable (Study at Military Resort Command/Korem 101/Antasari). INJOSEDU: International Journal of Social and Education, 2(1), 176–189.
Republic of Indonesia. (2025). Law Number 3 of 2025 concerning the amendment to Law Number 34 of 2004 on the Indonesian National Armed Forces. https://peraturan.bpk.go.id/Details/319166/uu-no-3-tahun-2025
Rizkie, M., & Suriansyah, A. (2022). The effect of transformational leadership of school principles, quality culture and job satisfaction on teacher performance. International Journal of Social Science and Human Research, 5(6), 2345–2353. https://doi.org/10.47191/ijsshr/v5-i6-59
Robbins, S.P., & Judge, T. (2019). Organizational behavior (18th ed.). Pearson Education.
Rumanti, S., Aslamiah, & Rizalie, A.M. (2022). The effect of principal transformational leadership, school culture, and organizational commitment on the performance of state MTS teachers in Balangan regency. International Journal of Social Science and Human Research, 5(6), 2336–2343.
Ryacudu, R. (2019). Wira Media Informasi Kementerian Pertahanan [Ministry of Defense information media hero].
Sari, P.A., & Sa’adah, P.N. (2019). Work placement, organizational commitment and employee performance: Evaluation of public service offices in Indonesia. Review of Behavioral Aspect in Organizations and Society, 1(2), 129–140. https://doi.org/10.32770/rbaos.vol1129-140
Sekiguchi, T., & Huber, V.L. (2011). The use of person–organization fit and person–job fit information in selection decisions. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 116(2), 203–216. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.obhdp.2011.04.001
Trisnayanthi, N.N., Sugita, I.M., Darmawan, A.A.R., Amertha, I.M.S., & Putra, I.B.U. (2024). The influence of organizational culture and work motivation on employee performance with job satisfaction as mediation variables (Case Study PT. BPR Eka Ayu Artha Bhuwana). International Journal of Current Science Research and Review, 7(3), 1528–1539.
Vuong, T.D.N., & Nguyen, L.T. (2022). Strategies for measuring employee performance: A systematic review. Sustainability, 14(21), 14017. https://doi.org/10.3390/su142114017
Weng, M.R., Chang, C.C., Jiang, R.S., & Chang, M.Y. (2025). The moderating role of person–job fit and person–organization fit on workplace spirituality and health. Journal of Nursing Management, 2025, 7796807. https://doi.org/10.1155/jonm/7796807
Wu, T., Wang, Y., Ruan, R., & Zheng, J. (2022). Divergent effects of transformational leadership on safety compliance. PLoS One, 17(1), e0262394. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0262394
Zhang, W., Zeng, X., Liang, H., Xue, Y., & Cao, X. (2023). Organizational culture and innovation performance. Sustainability, 15(8), 6644. https://doi.org/10.3390/su15086644
|
Hide
Show all
Email this article (Login required)
