Social Exchange Theory (Blau, 1964) is a commonly used and reliable premise that addresses interpersonal links that are developed between students and lecturers. These bonds, by nature, trigger reciprocity, especially when the lecturers’ approach is respectful, trust-inducing and consistently committed to positive exchanges and fairness. Social Exchange Theory supports the idea that lecturers who possess SL characteristics (i.e. serve students’ needs, be empathetic and ethical) can urge the students to respond with development of trust, engagement and psychological and emotional investments (Dami et al., 2022; Stewart, 2012; Zhou et al., 2022). In this research, trust is operationalised as a function that bridges SL traits and students’ sense of belonging, as such traits can steer students towards a greater inclination to engage with the academic community and a stronger sense of belonging. This is further complemented by embedding Attachment Theory (Bowlby, 1982), which encompasses the notion that individuals tend to shape an emotional link with significant figures in their lives (e.g. lecturers), which can influence their psychological outcomes, social behaviours and sense of security in a particular group (i.e. classroom). In the context of academia, Attachment Theory explains educators’ supportive and ethical conduct and its impact on students’ sense of connection, security, exploration, engagement and integration (Hays, 2008; Kutsyuruba & Stroud Stasel, 2022; Riley, 2010; Watson, 2018). Through their emotional prowess, AC and stewardship, lecturers, as servant leaders, foster relationships with their students that promote attachment. Ultimately, such traits can enhance the sense of safety, acceptance and belonging. Lastly, this research embeds the premises of Chaos Theory (Rennaker, 2006) by recognising the unpredictability of interactions among humans (student–lecturer, in this case). Under this lens, adaptive leadership behaviours (i.e. SL) can create order through relational patterns (Farmanesh & Zargar, 2021). In the current context, Chaos Theory is highly relevant as it explains the nonlinear dynamics of students’ sense of belonging and development. Through decentralisation, responsiveness, empathy, listening and care and adaptability, servant leaders can foster meaningful interactions and thus develop a sense of belonging among their followers (Atiq et al., 2023; Bier, 2021; Murphy, 2020). This theoretical combination enables the current research to develop its hypotheses, which are further explained in the following passages.

Servant leadership is a positive, supportive and ethical leadership approach that emphasises meeting others’ needs and serving them, rendering it especially relevant to the complex context of university students’ sense of belonging (Aboramadan et al., 2021; Greenleaf, 1998; Turner, 2022). The characteristics of servant leaders are categorised as an AC (the desire to serve others, placing students’ needs above personal gain through genuine care, mentorship, compassion and ethical conduct) (Turner, 2022). These leaders possess WD (intuitive insight, judgement and capability of making adequate decisions to navigate the needs of students with balance) (Van Dierendonck, 2011) and PM (the prowess of logic, vision and rational persuasiveness instead of authoritative behaviours), which can foster a sense of shared purpose and motivation in students (Shaw, 2017). Servant leaders also demonstrate EL (recognising and supporting the well-being of students to create a safe environment for expression and recovery from challenges) (Riley, 2022). Lastly, servant leaders incorporate OS (the degree to which lecturers are committed to improving their organisation and communities by fostering collaboration and acting as role models) (Thompson, 2014). These traits can enable the lecturers to exhibit genuine support for their students, which can, in turn, deepen their sense of inclusion, safety and ultimately belonging (Van Dierendonck, 2011). The higher education context is dynamic and complex, requiring students to navigate social and academic obstacles and challenges. Characteristics of servant leaders (e.g. WD and PM) can aid students to better align themselves in academia under the principles of Chaos Theory (Farmanesh & Zargar, 2021), as it explains the influence of leaders in dynamic environments through coherence in their interactions instead of controlling behaviours (Kleiber et al., 2023; Rennaker, 2006). In particular, in Northern Cyprus, where the education sector is vital, and universities host diverse international students (Gökbulut et al., 2019; Küçükakın & Gökmenoğlu, 2023), the presence of SL traits among lecturers may be more evident. When students feel accepted, involved and valued, they can develop a sense of belonging with their university environment (Allen et al., 2024), which is the description used in this research. Belonging for students can be categorised into academic and social belonging, where the former pertains to perceived fit within the group, affirmation within the setting, being valued by faculty members, participation in classroom discussions and acknowledgement of contributions. This influences their learning outcomes, such as overall academic performance, persistence and motivation (Mtshweni, 2024), and the latter describes the emotional connectedness to other students, campus community and lecturers, which entails inclusion, friendliness and support that can influence their well-being, sense of identity and retention (Samadieh & Rezaei, 2024). Through the lens of Attachment Theory (Bowlby, 1982), psychological attachment can be fostered by SL characteristics, thereby shaping students’ sense of belonging in higher education. Studies have reported that compassion and ethical leadership can trigger a sense of identity, connectedness and resilience among subordinates in academic settings (Koçak, 2021; Riley, 2022). Students’ learning development and emotional well-being can be supported by the attachment that forms between students and lecturers. Organisational stewardship, as a pillar of SL, can be a tool for lecturers to implement practices wherein students are involved, recognised and valued. This sense of attachment can be strengthened by the traits of servant leaders, which can urge the students to engage in reciprocative behaviours (under the SET model) that can manifest trust, emotional investment and development of a sense of belonging (Masika & Jones, 2016; Sawan, 2020; Thomas, 2012). The current study considers all dimensions of SL, as well as academic and social dimensions of belonging. By leveraging this understanding, the current research proposes the following hypothesis:

Trust can be defined as the degree to which a person can be depended on, relied on and remain true and correct, which forms the basis of belief in others. Trust is a multifaceted psychological element that is a major determinant of attitudes and behaviours in the context of leader–follower relationships (Farmanesh & Zargar, 2021; Zargar et al., 2019). Referring to the premises of SET (Blau, 1964), interactions among lecturers and their students are relational, which demands mutual trust, respect and engagement to yield positive outcomes. As SL style requires lecturers to act selflessly, build trust, be consistent and coherent and be attentive, students are encouraged to respond with openness and a greater sense of belonging (Zhu et al., 2022). Therefore, the concept of trust can be a bridge for better translating the efforts of servant lecturers to students, leading to positive perceptions that open the path for a sense of belonging, attachment and community (Sun & Leithwood, 2015; Tian et al., 2025; Van Houtte & Van Maele, 2012). In this respect, the emotional environment of classrooms is enhanced to facilitate trust through perception of care, worth and value. Students in higher education face identity, autonomy and social challenges, which further highlight the role of servant lecturers in fostering trust and psychological security that entails social integration as explained under the premises of Attachment Theory (Bowlby, 1982; Shaw, 2017; Turner, 2022). By establishing trust with lecturers, students can internalise the university’s commitment and values, fostering a sense of empowerment and affiliation. Thus, trust can act as a mechanism through which cognitive, affective, competence-related and integrity-based aspects are involved. While the affective aspect can develop through emotional bonds with empathetic and caring lecturers, cognitive trust can be a sense of reliability and confidence in the judgement of lecturers and their guidance. Competence relates to the perception of students towards the expertise and effective know-how of lecturers, which can determine academic outcomes (Cohen de Lara et al., 2024; Lewicka, 2022). While this has been noted in the organisational context (Farmanesh & Zargar, 2021), the current study investigates the role of trust in determining student outcomes that can benefit their learning process as well as psychological and social well-being during their university programmes. Lastly, the integrity aspect pertains to the extent to which lecturers exhibit consistency, determination and commitment to their role as ethical leaders (Tian et al., 2025; Zhu et al., 2022). Hence, the characteristics of SL (i.e. AC, WD, PM, EL and OS) are influential in determining trust cultivation in the academic context. Through EL that focuses on students’ well-being, affective trust can be fostered; WD and PM, with sound decision-making and adequate communication, can yield cognitive trust and OS and ethical behaviour can contribute to perceptions of integrity. Through this linkage, lecturers can impact students’ sense of belonging, thereby enhancing the university’s academic community. Accordingly, the following hypothesis has been developed:

Social attachment can be defined as a sense of connection among individuals, shaped by interactions and relationships in various communities (Bier, 2021). Referring to the notion of Attachment Theory, it can be stated that university-level students with higher emotional support (i.e. through lecturers’ SL traits) will have a higher tendency to develop social bonds in their learning environment, which can entail peers, academic staff, lecturers and the university as a community. Emotional leadership, AC and WD are among the SL characteristics that can create an environment in which students feel socially bonded (Mtshweni, 2024). Authenticity, care and a genuine SL approach are critical elements that can foster social attachment among students, leading to a stronger sense of belonging (Andrade, 2025; Skalicky et al., 2020). The reason for this form of attachment is the influence of lecturers’ servant traits that go beyond transactional interactions to a valued and deep connection, facilitating easier connections with others and with the university. This ultimately can improve the overall experiences of higher education students, leading to a better performance and well-being, particularly for those living abroad in a relatively small country (e.g. Northern Cyprus) that can be limited in terms of institutional and economic resources (Hoch & Heinz, 2024; Katircioğlu, 2010; Mertkan, 2020). Servant leaders also possess the ability to assert social cohesion, which is a major predictor of sense of belonging and is linked to the notion of social attachment. As these leaders form deep emotional bonds, they can influence life satisfaction and well-being that are highly relevant to the context of belonging (Andrade, 2025; Samadieh & Rezaei, 2024). Furthermore, the implementation of inclusive practices in the classroom, as well as emphasising social capital, can yield positive emotions, leading to consistent performance in both emotional and academic domains (Pedler et al., 2022; Skalicky et al., 2020). From the perspective of Chaos Theory, servant leaders can identify patterns in their interactions and use them to improve connectedness and positive emotional bonds, such as attachment and individual and collective belonging (Delker et al., 2020; Halse, 2018; Hindley, 2019). Social attachment in the higher education context refers to the emotional and relational links developed between students and their lecturers as important persons, as well as within university communities (e.g. faculty members). Connectedness and belonging can arise from social attachment, especially through SL behaviours. In this sense, AC and EL provide genuine expressions of care for both personal and academic aspects of student’s life, which can trigger closeness; WD, PM and OS represent a holistic commitment and sound judgement for the well-being and shared visions in the university environment, which leads to the perception of support and inclusivity, enabling the development of the sense of belonging (Delker et al., 2020; Hindley, 2019). Therefore, students can perceive their faculty members and lecturers not as authority figures but as mentors who are trustworthy and caring. This shapes social attachment and prevents students from isolation, which can improve their academic and social performance. Thus, it can be argued that social attachment can help explain the efforts of servant leaders to deepen student integration in the classroom and university environment while encouraging a strong sense of belonging. This becomes more vivid in the smaller, contextual setting of Northern Cyprus as an SIDS, where interpersonal and social bonds can be of greater importance and influence (Mertkan, 2020). In light of what was noted, the current research presents the following hypothesis:

The current research was conducted quantitatively using a deductive design, in which theoretical settings available in the literature were tested in a specific context (i.e. higher education in Northern Cyprus) (Casula et al., 2021). In doing so, the data were gathered from two universities in Northern Cyprus (Kyrenia), where the researchers established the existence of SL-type behaviours among lecturers. The information confirming the presence of SL traits was acquired from faculty deans, who suggested lecturers exhibiting such behaviours. Permission to collect the data was also obtained from the deans and other relevant managerial positions. At this stage, students who had classes with lecturers who met the selection criteria were engaged in person (within the university environment and with the collaboration of lecturers), and those who were willing to participate and available were provided with the questionnaire. Using SmartPLS GmbH, Monheim am Rhein (Germany) (Statistical power = 90%, effect size = 0.15, and α = 0.05) and recommendations for using SmartPLS (version 4) (Hair et al., 2019), the required sample size was calculated to be 158. A total of 165 students were given the survey, of whom seven were incomplete and thus excluded from the final analyses. Each participant was provided with a written consent form; informed of the purposes of the research; given the opportunity to withdraw at any stage; anonymity and confidentiality and asked not to provide any identifiers to comply with ethical means of conduct and reduce common method bias (Podsakoff et al., 2024). A pilot test with 15 participants from a third university was conducted, in which no dimensions were reduced, and the understandability and readability of items were confirmed. This segment of the data was excluded from the final analysis.

Of the 158 participants, 84 were male and 74 were female, which is not significantly different in terms of sample size. Age groups of participants were distributed as follows: Below 20 years old (n = 21), 20–25 years old (n = 97), 26–30 years old (n = 31) and above 30 years old (n = 9), and the majority were in the undergraduate level (n = 124), followed by master’s students (n = 22) and PhD students (n = 12).

The survey was designed based on the available, reliable, and commonly used measurement scales in the extant literature. All items are designed using a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). To assess SL style, the SL Survey (Barbuto & Wheeler, 2006) was used, with three questions for each of the dimensions (see section ‘Servant leadership and students’ sense of belonging’). To measure students’ sense of belonging (social and academic aspects), questions were derived from the work of Sebastian and Slaten (2018), with three questions pertaining to each dimension. Social attachment was measured using five questions derived from the work of Ravitz et al. (2010). Lastly, a combination of the works of Van Maele and Van Houtte (2011) and Cummings and Bromiley (1996) was used to measure trust as a unidimensional psychological element (Farmanesh & Zargar, 2021). These measurement scales are commonly used across various domains in the literature. However, the established scales do not warrant quality in new contextual settings. Hence, the measurement model was assessed for construct validity and reliability through various means (i.e. indicator reliability, internal consistency, convergent validity and discriminant validity), shown in Table 1 and Table 2, which demonstrate acceptable values and support the adequacy and appropriateness of the measurement model for subsequent structural analyses. Notably, age, gender and education level were included in the survey to obtain demographic data and to introduce control variables into the analytical model. These variables can influence the perception of leadership, trust and belonging (Gbobaniyi et al., 2023; Liu et al., 2025; Vermunt & Donche, 2017). Thus, their interaction with the analytical model is isolated (Table 4). The hypotheses and proposed model of the study are illustrated in Figure 1.

Based on the hypotheses and the theoretical framework of the study, Figure 1 illustrates the proposed causal model, which is analysed in the following sections.

Ethical clearance to conduct this study was obtained from the Islamic University of Lebanon Ethics Committee (No. IUL-EC-25-A002).

The current research employed the premises of SET (Blau, 1964), Attachment Theory (Bowlby, 1982) and Chaos Theory (Rennaker, 2006). In doing so, this study advances the discourse by combining these theories to validate SL dimensions and its influence on trust, social attachment and belonging among university students. Through this embeddedness, the mechanisms with which leadership can drive progress and improvements in academic environments are highlighted. Social Exchange Theory can explain how such leadership traits can provoke students to reciprocate by engaging in classes and establishing social and emotional bonds within the academic environment of their university. Reciprocity can be amplified by establishing trust and sense of attachment, which servant leaders can achieve by serving the needs of students, supporting them personally and professionally and providing sound advice. The current research also contributes to the theoretical understanding of student engagement and belonging by incorporating socio-emotional aspect in this context, addressing a gap in the existing literature on SL. Chaos and Attachment Theories in this context show that unique attributes of SL traits among lecturers can yield psychological and institutional outcomes that are highly important for the educational system, particularly for small developing states such as Northern Cyprus. Navigating the chaotic nature of academia can be facilitated by SL traits, leading to an enhanced pathway for students to develop positive emotions towards their lecturers, the university and ultimately their lives. The combined premises of SET, Chaos and Attachment Theories provide a perspective through which lecturers in universities of Northern Cyprus (and other SIDS) can create an academic environment that enables students to thrive by incorporating SL traits and becoming servant lecturers. Arguably, lecturers are well suited to be influential role models who motivate, include, tend to and care for students beyond the traditional confines of classroom management. This supports the applicability of Chaos Theory, through which lecturers can align SL traits with their students to establish and develop trust and attachment. This bridges the premises of Attachment Theory, where lecturers can further facilitate positive emotions by appropriately guiding students and provision of support. Ultimately, the SET framework explains the necessity of responding to this supportive and caring behaviour by fostering engagement, involvement and a sense of belonging.

Following the theoretical implications noted, the current study provides several paths for university managers (e.g. deans) to implement in a faculty or university wide. Student empowerment programmes can be initiated through lecturers and administrative staff in faculties where motivational, aspirational and trendy topics are discussed and presented to students to develop their sense of belonging. Such programmes can be established by the university’s human resource management department under an adequate framework. Similarly, counselling programmes and initiatives can be introduced in the faculties to provide much-needed mental support to students, particularly for international students who are far from their home countries. Having this session available to students at no or low cost can significantly strenghen their attachment to the university and positive emotions towards it, thereby improving their quality of life and well-being. In addition, healthcare centres can be contracted or established (depending on the budget) to provide students with secure plans that can further foster their sense of belonging and trigger their reciprocity. Furthermore, social and communication skills, as well as technology or software workshops, can train students in ways, enabling them to adjust their learning processes better. In a similar vein, coping mechanisms, burnout, stress and anxiety and psychological workshops can commence with lecturers to provide students with information and knowledge to better navigate their lives at this crucial stage. Cultural, entertainment, festival, and other social community-building initiatives can also foster a deeper sense of belonging as university members, enabling students to form various social groups, particularly helping the international community to find support and a sense of identity. Emotional and academic adjustment programmes, such as those noted, can serve as significant foundations for students’ academic prowess, aspirations and emotional and social bonds. Hence, the human resource departments of universities can implement practices to develop and/or recruit lecturers with SL traits to enhance students’ overall well-being

Although the current research contributes to both the theoretical and practical domains of SL in academia and to improving students’ sense of belonging, various aspects remain unexplored due to limitations hindering the current work. In this respect, the generalisability of results for quantitative studies with small sample sizes and conducted in a cross-sectional manner is limited. Such limitations can be avoided by increasing the sample size and acquiring longitudinal data, which can show variations in students’ sense of belonging before and after certain practices are undertaken. Moreover, the current research was limited by the non-availability of abundant literature specifically on SIDS and Northern Cyprus. Future studies can address these contexts to increase the empirical evidence on SL, SET, Chaos, and Attachment Theories within the academic context of small cultures and economies. While two mediators were included in the current model, other variables can be examined in this context (e.g. organisational climate, satisfaction, motivation and psychological safety). In addition, future studies can embed other theories such as Self-Determination Theory, Leader–Member Exchange Theory, and Ability–Motivation–Opportunity Model. Including variables such as cultural dimensions, whether from the lecturers’ or students’ perspective, can also contribute to the current understanding, as such factors were not focused on in this research. Obtaining qualitative data through interviews can also contribute to the depth of current analyses and results.