Abstract
Orientation: Female lecturers in Indonesia, particularly in regions with strong sociocultural norms such as East Nusa Tenggara, face complex intersections between domestic responsibilities and professional expectations. These conditions shape their performance and academic career trajectories.
Research purpose: This study examined how dual roles, family support, organisational support (OS) and local culture (LC) influence female lecturers’ performance and academic careers in East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia.
Motivation for the study: Although gendered barriers in academia have been widely discussed, limited empirical evidence exists on how different sociocultural and organisational environments jointly shape female lecturers’ outcomes in culturally distinct settings. This study addresses that gap in outcomes.
Research approach/design and method: A quantitative survey was conducted involving 301 married female lecturers with children. Respondents were selected through purposive and snowball sampling. Data were analysed using structural equation modelling to assess direct relationships among variables.
Main findings: Family support, OS and LC significantly influenced lecturer performance. Academic careers were shaped by performance, dual roles, OS and LC. Dual roles did not directly affect performance but significantly contributed to academic careers, suggesting that the pressures of dual responsibilities may become drivers of academic advancement when supported by an enabling environment.
Practical/managerial implications: Higher education institutions should prioritise gender-sensitive policies, strengthen OS systems and address sociocultural barriers to enhance women’s performance and career development.
Contribution/value-add: This study provides one of the first empirical analyses of sociocultural–organisational dynamics affecting female lecturers’ careers in Indonesia, offering evidence-based insights for institutional reform and gender equity strategies.
Keywords: female lecturers; dual roles; family support; organisational support; local culture; lecturer performance; academic career development.
Introduction
The quality of Human Resources (HR), which is vital for national competitiveness, continues to be a strategic issue demanding serious attention (Pahuja et al., 2024; Tran, 2024), particularly in developing countries such as Indonesia. In numerous developing contexts, higher education institutions play a crucial role in producing competent, innovative and globally competitive HR capable of meeting the demands of an increasingly technology-oriented global landscape (Banerjee & Sharma, 2025; Marsithah, 2022; Xiao et al., 2024). The Indonesian government has also emphasised HR quality improvement through policies that support strengthening higher education quality. However, the growth in the number of universities in Indonesia has not always been accompanied by a corresponding increase in the quality of educational services (Suryaman, 2018). From 265 452 in 2021 to 326 554 in 2023 only 7959 lecturers (2.4%) attained the rank of Professor, while 102 822 (31.5%) do not yet hold any functional position (Ikhtisar Data Pendidikan Tinggi [Higher Education Data Overview], 2023). This data indicates that improvements have not matched the increase in the number of lecturers in quality and professionalism (Qurtubi, 2023).
Similar challenges have been reported globally. In China, the massification of higher education has expanded access but created several disparities in quality across different institutions, with academic staff facing high publication pressure that adversely affects their performance (Li et al., 2024). Rapid growth of private universities in India has not been accompanied by improved lecturer productivity, especially in international research outputs, partly because of weak institutional support (Banerjee & Sharma, 2025). African countries such as Nigeria also face challenges, where lecturers’ performance is constrained by limited facilities, insufficient research incentives and work–family conflict (Oludeyi & Olajide, 2016). Even in more developed countries, remarkable gender-based performance gaps persist. Recent studies in the United States and Europe revealed that female lecturers often receive lower evaluations for teaching than their male counterparts (Ayllón, 2022; Saygin & Zhang, 2025).These evaluation disparities contribute to slower promotion and career progression for women in academia (Fox Tree & Vaid, 2022). These global patterns suggest that institutional expansion alone is insufficient to improve lecturer performance (LP), highlighting the need to examine contextual and structural factors that influence lecturer performance in Indonesia.
Lecturer performance in Indonesia is closely interlinked to academic careers, represented through functional ranks ranging from assistant professor to professor. To be promoted, lecturers must meet various requirements, such as educational qualifications, scholarly publications and the implementation of the Tridharma of Higher Education (education, research and community service). However, this policy encounters several challenges: low productivity in publishing academic work (Setyowati et al., 2018); pressures to publish in reputable international journals for academic recognition and institutional constraints on academic rank promotion, such as strict timelines and assessment criteria.
Earlier studies in Indonesia have identified various determinants of performance and academic career advancement of lecturers, including individual level such as self-efficacy and self-esteem (Syaebani et al., 2023), academic rank and participative decision making (Sukirno & Siengthai, 2011), lecturer competence (Anitra et al., 2023; Nelly et al., 2024), publication rewards (Fry et al., 2023) and job satisfaction and motivation (Mahmud et al., 2018). At the institutional level, factors such as an unsupportive organisation (Syaebani et al., 2023), work environment (Anitra et al., 2023), academic workload (Anggraeny et al., 2024) and institutional support impact LP, particularly in helping female lecturers manage work pressures and sustain their academic productivity (Astuty et al., 2025). However, most of the earlier studies have predominantly focused on individual- and institutional-level determinants, often examining other factors in isolation. In practice, female academics encounter multidimensional barriers to career advancement, including family-, organisational- and individual-related constraints (Kholis, 2017), challenges in achieving work–family balance (Syahran et al., 2025), work–family conflict leading to burnout (Zulkarnain et al., 2015) and persistent gendered role norms that shape professional opportunities in Indonesia (Arquisola & Rentschler, 2023; Kholis, 2017). These findings underline the need for a more integrative approach that considers the interplay between role demands and sociocultural influences in shaping female lecturers’ performance and academic careers.
Accordingly, the current study focuses on four interrelated sociocultural factors – dual roles (DR), family support (FS), organisational support (OS) and local culture (LC) – because they represent multiple levels of influence on women’s academic work: individual role demands (DR), family-level support systems (FS), institutional resources (OS) and wider sociocultural norms (LC). Dual roles constitute a primary source of role conflict and time pressure for female lecturers, whereas FS, OS and LC may function as contextual resources that either constrain or facilitate their performance and career progression, few have investigated how they interact within a single framework to shape female lecturers’ performance and academic careers, particularly in the Indonesian higher education context.
Female lecturers are positioned at the intersection between professional and domestic demands (Oludeyi & Olajide, 2016; Sümer & Eslen-Ziya, 2023); they often experience conflicts between work and personal life, which can lead to stress (Radico et al., 2021), and sometimes find it difficult to concentrate on campus because of concerns about housework and vice versa (Miller & Riley, 2022), time pressures related to caregiving responsibilities (Dubois-Shaik & Fusulier, 2017; Nair et al., 2021) and a greater work–family imbalance compared to male academics (Aiston & Jung, 2015). Despite these challenges, institutional strategies frequently prioritise productivity targets, publication requirements and promotion benchmarks without sufficiently addressing the sociocultural and family-related constraints faced by female academics. Some studies have examined how institutional support systems, family dynamics and local cultural contexts interact to influence LP and academic career progression in higher education, especially in regions with distinct sociocultural characteristics such as East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia.
Therefore, this study aims to examine the effects of DR, FS, OS and LC on female lecturers’ performance and academic careers in East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia, as well as to analyse the influence of LP on academic career progression. To achieve this objective, the present study addresses the following questions: (1) How do DR, FS, OS and LC influence female lecturers’ performance? (2) How do these factors influence female lecturers’ academic careers? and (3) How does LP influence female lecturers’ academic career progression?
Literature review
Theoretical framework
Job performance theory provides the primary conceptual basis for this study; this theory defines performance as work behaviours and outcomes that contribute to organisational goals (Colquitt et al., 2015). In organisational contexts, performance is shaped by individual competencies, motivation and situational factors that influence employees’ ability to perform their roles effectively. In Indonesian higher education, LP is reflected in the fulfilment of three essential roles: teaching, research and community service responsibilities, which function as measurable indicators of academic productivity and professional achievement (Direktorat Jendral Pendidikan Tinggi [Directorate General of Higher Education], 2010). Thus, job performance theory offers a strong foundation for understanding how lecturers’ behaviours translate into performance outcomes within institutional contexts.
To extend this perspective further, this study also draws on the job demands–resources (JD-R) framework, which explains how performance is shaped by the interaction between role demands and available resources (Bakker & Demerouti, 2017). Job demands – such as workload pressures, time constraints and role conflict – require sustained effort, likely causing strain (Demerouti et al., 2001), whereas resources in the JD-R framework include organisational, social and contextual factors that help individuals cope with these demands and maintain performance. In the context of female academics, DR are conceptualised as key role demands that may generate competing professional and domestic pressures, while FS, OS and LC function as contextual resources that may either constrain or facilitate lecturers’ performance and academic career progression.
Overall, both job performance theory and the JD-R framework provide a comprehensive theoretical foundation for this study. By integrating role demands (DR) and contextual resources (FS, OS and LC) into a unified model, this research extends existing performance frameworks to better capture the sociocultural realities that female lecturers in Indonesian higher education face. This integrated model addresses a gap in prior research, which has often examined individual or institutional determinants in isolation and offers a more robust explanation of how multiple contextual factors interact to influence LP and academic career progressions.
Lecturer performance
Performance, an important term in management, refers to an individual’s achievements or work outcomes in accomplishing their duties and responsibilities effectively and efficiently within a specific time frame to achieve organisational goals (Jannah, 2016; Marwansyah, 2014). In the context of higher education, LP is a key indicator of an institution’s success because lecturers play a strategic role in achieving national educational goals, namely to enlighten the nation’s life and create a just and prosperous society. Aligning with the job performance theory, in the present study, LP is conceptualised as work-related behaviours and measurable outcomes that contribute to institutional goals, shaped by both individual capacities and contextual conditions (Colquitt et al., 2015).
In Indonesia, the conceptualisation of LP is institutionally grounded in the tridharma of Higher Education, a national higher education framework that defines the core academic obligations of lecturers. The tridharma comprises three interrelated domains: education and teaching, research and scholarly publication and community service. Rather than functioning merely as a philosophical principle, the tridharma operates as a formal performance standard embedded in national regulations governing lecturer workload (Beban Kerja Dosen [BKD]), evaluation and promotion in Indonesia (Direktorat Jendral Pendidikan Tinggi [Directorate General of Higher Education], 2010). The tridharma implementation is regulated through many workload requirements, including teaching credit loads and mandatory scholarly or community service outputs, while professors have additional scholarly obligations as an integral part of their academic career advancement (Minister of Administrative and Bureaucratic Reform Regulation No. 17 of 2013 [Ministry of Administrative and Bureaucratic Reform, 2013b]; Muhalim et al., 2025). The tridharma framework functions as a comprehensive performance evaluation system in Indonesia (Alamanda et al., 2026; Bungai & Perdana, 2018; Kartika et al., 2025; Masnun et al., 2025).
The tridharma framework evaluates a lecturer’s performance based on the extent to which academics fulfil measurable achievements across these three domains, both quantitatively and qualitatively (Arisal, 2023; Marsithah, 2022). In practical terms, this includes numerous activities such as delivering lectures (minimum teaching load of 12 credits and a maximum of 16 credits per semester), supervising students, developing course materials, publishing scholarly articles, conducting research projects, securing research funding and engaging in community outreach or professional service (at least one research or community service activity annually), which serve as formal benchmarks for evaluating lecturers’ performance. These activities represent measurable indicators of academic productivity and contribution within higher education institutions. Hence, this study conceptualises LP as not only general job effectiveness but also the extent to which lecturers fulfil their tridharma responsibilities in a balanced and sustainable manner. This constitutes the bedrock for academic evaluation and recognition within higher education institutions.
Lecturer’s academic career
A career is a series of jobs pursued by an individual, each with a particular role (Hoffman, 1976). An academic career refers to the progression of an individual within the higher education profession. It is characterised by increasing levels of responsibility, recognition and scholarly contribution. Unlike general career paths, academic careers follow a structured trajectory shaped by strict traditional institutional regulations, performance evaluation systems and scholarly productivity.
In Indonesia, lecturers’ academic careers are structured through functional academic ranks, beginning with Assistant Professor [Asisten Ahli], followed by Associate Lecturer [Lektor], Senior Lecturer [Lektor Kepala] and Professor [Guru Besar]. Progression in this ladder necessitates accumulation of cumulative credit points [Angka Kredit or KUM] that are earned primarily from tridharma activities and performance-based workload evaluation. Under the latest higher education regulation (Ministry of Higher Education, Science, and Technology, 2025), the minimum cumulative credit required for promotion is 150 KUM for Assistant Professor, 200 KUM for Associate Lecturer, 450 KUM for Senior Lecturer and 850 KUM for Professor. This regulation emphasises the need for conversion of lecturer workload outcomes – particularly research and publication outputs – into credit points for promotion to the next levels, underscoring the central role of measurable academic productivity in career progression. Promotion eligibility also requires securing a National Lecturer Identification Number (NIDN), appropriate academic qualifications, educator certification and continuous professional development.
Despite this structured pathway for promotion of lecturers, academic career advancement is shaped by both facilitating and constraining factors. Research productivity, publication in reputable journals, institutional support, research funding and professional networks facilitate promotion although enormous teaching loads, administrative duties, limited research opportunities and work–family demands may hinder smooth progression in career trajectory. These constraints are particularly salient for women in academia, whose dual professional and domestic roles can affect research productivity, promotion timelines and access to leadership opportunities (Pelletier et al., 2024). Structural pressures from national policies further complicate these challenges. Low publication productivity – especially in nationally reputable (Science and Technology Index [SINTA]-indexed) and internationally indexed journals such as Scopus-indexed journals – remains a concern (Setyowati et al., 2018). Moreover, the requirement to publish in reputable international journals for doctoral graduation (Directorate General of Higher Education, 2012), together with strict timelines and cumulative credit requirements in academic rank promotion (Ministry of Administrative and Bureaucratic Reform, 2013a), makes the competitive and performance-based nature of academic career progression more difficult. As promotion eligibility is formally determined by measurable tridharma achievements converted into cumulative credit points, LP constitutes a central mechanism driving academic career advancement.
Based on the above findings, the following research hypotheses were formulated:
H9: Lecturer performance has a positive effect on female lecturers’ academic careers.
Dual roles
Dual roles occur when an individual simultaneously carries out two or more social roles (especially in the professional and domestic spheres), such as being a professional worker in the public space while also acting simultaneously as a wife, mother and household manager (Kang & Jang, 2020; Sinha, 2017). Several theoretical perspectives suggest that multiple role engagement generates positive spillover effects. Role accumulation and work–family enrichment theories argue that combining professional and family roles can enhance psychological resources and resilience (Barnett & Hyde, 2001; Greenhaus & Powell, 2006), and evidence in academic contexts indicates that family responsibilities do not necessarily reduce research productivity (Fox, 2005). Within the JD-R framework, DR can be conceptualised as a form of role demand that generates time pressure, work–family conflict and psychological strain, potentially influencing performance and career outcomes. This concept is closely related to the dual cultural sphere, which refers to the division between the domestic and public spheres that requires women to balance both in their daily lives (Rosaldo et al., 1974). Recent empirical studies show that work–family conflict directly affects the performance and well-being of female lecturers. Yuliaty (2024) found that dual role conflict lowers academic performance, whereas Wei et al. (2025) documented that a high academic workload leads to burnout among female lecturers. Additionally, Hong et al. (2025) highlighted parenthood penalties, such as caregiving responsibilities, which hamper women’s academic career achievements. However, this impact can be mitigated by timely OS. A study done in Malaysia revealed that work overload directly increases work–family conflict among female lecturers, thereby resulting in reduced productivity and delayed career advancement (Nair et al., 2020).
Based on these findings, the following research hypotheses were formulated:
H1: Dual roles have a negative effect on female lecturers’ performance.
H5: Dual roles have a negative effect on female lecturers’ academic careers.
Family support
Family support refers to the attitudes, behaviours and acceptance of family members towards one another; it is expressed through emotional support, instrumental support, informational support and appraisal or recognition support (Inayah & Puryandani, 2022). In the context of working academics, FS includes emotional encouragement for career goals, shared household responsibilities, assistance with childcare, flexibility in managing domestic tasks and a proper understanding of academic work demands, such as research deadlines or travel for conferences. Conversely, limited FS may be reflected in unequal domestic workloads, lack of understanding of professional commitments or minimal involvement in caregiving responsibilities, which can increase work–family strain.
In alignment with the structural-functionalism perspective, different family members perform complementary roles that help maintain balance within the family system and support each individual’s participation in broader social and professional contexts (e.g. the father as an instrumental figure and the mother as an expressive figure) (Sanner et al., 2024). Family support not only acts as a buffer against stress but also serves as a psychological reinforcement, positively influencing job performance and academic career development (Chan et al., 2020). Female academics who receive emotional and practical support from their families tend to show higher productivity and greater stress resilience (Cao et al., 2024; Fayaz & Gulzar, 2025), whereas insufficient FS may enhance role conflict and contribute to slower career progression (Karadağ & Şahin, 2025). However, FS does not always translate into improved LP, particularly in the transition towards professorship, where structural requirements, publication intensity and institutional criteria play a more dominant role (Setyawan et al., 2020). In such cases, performance at the professorship level may depend more heavily on research output, academic networking and institutional recognition than on the underlying family-related support mechanisms. These findings indicate that the influence of FS varies depending on career stage and institutional context. Therefore, examining the role of performance among female lecturers in Indonesian higher education remains essential, especially in determining whether FS functions as a significant resource in shaping both performance and broader academic career trajectories. Based on these considerations, the research hypotheses (H2 and H6) were formulated as follows:
H2: Family support has a positive effect on female lecturers’ performance.
H6: Family support has a positive effect on female lecturers’ academic careers.
Organisational support
Organisational support refers to the extent to which employees feel that their contributions are valued and their well-being is cared for by the institution or employer (Eisenberger et al., 1986). This perception fosters a positive attitude towards the organisation, encouraging loyalty, commitment and improved performance (Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002). Organisational support includes promotions, recognition, fair treatment, access to information and assistance in completing tasks (Fuller et al., 2006). Perceptions of OS are also affected by how institutions respond to employee input, show concern for their well-being and address the problems the employees face (Eisenberger et al., 1986). Such support meets socio-emotional needs and enhances motivation and academic performance. Kızıl (2024) established a direct positive correlation between perceived OS and job performance. Jamunarani and Syed (2024) concluded that supervisor support contributes to improving employee productivity and job satisfaction. However, while many studies report positive associations, research indicates that its effect on performance may operate indirectly through mechanisms such as commitment or work engagement, thereby suggesting that OS does not always translate into immediate measurable outcomes (Kurtessis et al., 2017). Within highly performance-based academic systems, structural productivity indicators may outweigh the motivational effects of perceived OS (Shin & Jung, 2014). Despite these inconsistencies, some theoretical perspectives indicate that OS remains an important institutional resource to boost motivation and productivity of lecturers. In the Indonesian higher education context, supportive institutional environments are therefore expected to directly facilitate female lecturers’ performance and academic career advancement. Based on these considerations, the following two research hypotheses were proposed:
H3: Organisational support has a positive effect on female lecturers’ performance.
H7: Organisational support has a positive effect on female lecturers’ academic careers.
Local culture
Local culture, a set of beliefs, norms, values and behaviours, is inherited as the traditions of a community (Fatonah et al., 2024), reflecting the unique identity of a local society (Hendra et al., 2023). In collectivist societies, local cultural traditions often function as not only systems of social control but also sources of social cohesion, mutual support and shared responsibility.
One distinctive tradition still preserved in East Nusa Tenggara is belis or bride wealth, in which the groom’s family gives offerings to the bride’s family as a form of respect and acknowledgement of women (Jovani, 2020). While these conventional practices reflect patriarchal and patrilineal structures; they also reinforce extended family solidarity and collective responsibility. Family members often provide emotional support, childcare assistance and shared domestic labour, enabling women to participate in professional activities. In this sense, cultural expectations of collective cooperation may indirectly support female lecturers’ productivity by distributing household responsibilities across extended many family networks. Similarly, customary practices such as funerals and communal ceremonies require collective participation and resource sharing. Although these obligations may increase social demands, they also strengthen social capital, kinship networks and reciprocal support systems that can mitigate work-related stress and enhance resilience. Strong communal ties and collective identity may motivate individuals to achieve professionally to uphold family reputation and social standing.
Action Theory (Parsons & Shils, 1951) divides culture into four systems: the cultural system, the social system, the personality system and the organic system. In collectivist contexts, these cultural systems may reinforce responsibility, discipline and social support structures that encourage professional commitment and persistence. Some empirical studies suggest that cultural values emphasising family cohesion, social support and collective responsibility can positively influence women’s work engagement and career outcomes (Ayoola-akinjobi, 2024; Li, 2022). However, some empirical evidence indicates that cultural norms may produce divergent outcomes for women’s academic work. Traditional gender expectations embedded in cultural systems may constrain women’s professional advancement, yet social role theory also indicates that cultural norms can foster adaptive role behaviours and supportive structures that sustain professional engagement (Aiston & Jung, 2015; Eagly & Wood, 2012). These contrasting perspectives indicate the context-dependent nature of LC. In regions such as East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia, where collective responsibility and kinship networks remain strong, LC may function not only as a constraint but also as a resource that reinforces professional commitment and resilience. Based on these findings, the following two research hypotheses were formulated:
H4: Local culture has a positive effect on female lecturers’ performance.
H8: Local culture has a positive effect on female lecturers’ academic careers.
Figure 1 depicts the conceptual framework of the current research based on theoretical analysis and previous research findings.
Research design
This study employed a quantitative approach with a survey method to collect numerical data. Specifically, quantitative approaches were used to measure the direct effects of DR, FS, OS and LC on female lecturers’ performance and academic career. Effect of LP on female lecturers’ academic careers was also determined. The research was conducted at higher education institutions in East Nusa Tenggara, including both private and public universities, with an unknown total population size. The study site was selected because it reflects sociocultural and institutional characteristics commonly found in several Indonesian higher education contexts, particularly those outside major metropolitan areas. Therefore, the findings provide analytical insights that may prove pertinent to similar institutional and sociocultural settings across Indonesia. As the population size was unknown, the sample size was determined using the minimum number of indicators multiplied by 10 (Hair et al., 2019b), meaning a minimum of 22 items × 10 = 220. The final sample consisted of 301 female lecturers from 35 Indonesian universities who completed the questionnaire and met the defined inclusion criteria.
The sampling techniques used were purposive sampling (focusing on married female lecturers with children at the selected universities) and snowball sampling to ensure representative coverage of the population. In this study, ‘selected universities’ refers to higher education institutions in East Nusa Tenggara employing permanent married female lecturers (with children) who met the study’s defined criteria. Of the 95 institutions in the province, several smaller institutions had very few lecturers and did not meet the inclusion criteria or lacked eligible respondents. Primary data were collected through an online questionnaire. The data were collected from March 2025 to May 2025 using the Google Forms platform. It enables respondents from multiple universities across East Nusa Tenggara to participate remotely, ensuring a broader sample and participation. To minimise institutional bias, an online survey link was distributed to both public and private universities through professional lecturer networks and institutional contacts, ensuring participation from diverse institutional types. The final sample included female lecturers from 35 universities, consisting of 8 public universities and 27 private universities. The questionnaire was divided into two sections and contained 22 statements using a five-point Likert scale. The first section collected general biographical information (e.g. age, years of service and academic position). The second section included statements related to DR, FS, OS, LC, as well as LP and lecturer academic career (LAC), based on clearly defined and detailed indicators.
The data were analysed using statistical techniques to test the validity and reliability of the research instruments. Furthermore, covariance-based structural equation modelling (CB-SEM) using Analysis of Moment Structures (AMOS) was employed to estimate the measurement and structural models, examine relationships among variables and test the proposed hypotheses. AMOS models refer to structural equation modelling (SEM) built using IBM SPSS AMOS software (IBM Corp., Armonk, New York, United States [US] a tool for analysing complex relationships between observed and latent variables in research like psychology or social sciences. This quantitative approach was expected to provide a more objective and measurable picture of the factors affecting the performance of female lecturers at universities in the East Nusa Tenggara Province.
Measures
As previously mentioned, this study administered a survey questionnaire as the data collection technique. The questionnaire consisted of two parts. the first part covered the demographic profiles of the respondents, including age, highest level of education and academic rank. The second part included items used to determine latent variables such as LAC, LP, DR, OS, FS and LC. These measures were drawn from the literature review and were adapted and customised to suit the needs of this research.
Lecturer academic career refers to the functional academic ranks (e.g. assistant lecturer, lecturer, senior lecturer and professor) and the time taken for promotion to higher academic ranks (based on Ministerial Decree No. 209/P/2024 [Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology, 2024] and Ministry of Administrative and Bureaucratic Reform Regulation No. 17 of 2013 [Ministry of Administrative and Bureaucratic Reform, 2013b]). Specifically, two items were used: (1) the current academic rank with answer options: 1 = no academic rank, 2 = assistant lecturer, 3 = lecturer, 4 = senior lecturer, 5 = professor; and (2) the time it took to be promoted to the current rank from the previous one. The response options were: 1 = more than 8 years, 2 = 7–8 years, 3 = more than 5–6 years, 4 = more than 3–4 years and 5 = 2 years.
Lecturer performance was evaluated using the tridharma principles of Higher Education as outlined in the BKD Guidelines by Directorate General of Higher Education (2010), including teaching activities (delivering lectures and supervising and examining students’ theses), research (number and quality of published scientific works) and community service activities (public outreach programmes). The items were: (1) teaching, (2) thesis supervision per semester, (3) number of scientific journals published in one semester, (4) quality of scientific journals published in one semester and (5) number of outputs from community service activities in one semester.
Dual roles refer to the condition in which female lecturers perform two or more social roles simultaneously. Indicators for DR were based on domestic roles (as wife, mother and homemaker) and public roles (as a lecturer), adapted from Greenhaus and Beutell (1985). Three more items were used to measure the dual role played by female lecturers:
- I fully carry out my role as a mother and as a lecturer.
- I fully carry out my role as a wife and as a lecturer.
- I fully carry out my role as a homemaker and as a lecturer.
Family support refers to female lecturers’ perception of the extent to which their family members show positive attitudes, provide tangible help, relevant information and appreciation for their academic roles and work. This variable was measured using indicators from Parasuraman et al. (1992), including emotional support (recognition), instrumental support (trust, time and money) and informational support (advice). Five items were developed to evaluate FS, three of which are furnished hereunder:
- My family appreciates the work achievements I have accomplished.
- My family fully trusts me to carry out my duties as a lecturer.
- My family gives me the flexibility in time to fulfil my role as a lecturer.
Organisational support refers to female lecturers’ perception of how much their institutions value their academic contributions and care about their professional and personal well-being. Indicators for OS were adapted from Rhoades and Eisenberger (2002), including organisational rewards and promotion, supportive working conditions (autonomy), supervisor support (further studies) and procedural and social justice (lecturer certification). Five items were used to measure OS; three of them are listed below:
- My university provides appropriate rewards that meet my needs.
- The promotion policy for academic ranks at my university is well implemented.
- My university gives me autonomy in scheduling tridharma activities.
Local culture denotes a set of values, norms, customs and behavioural patterns characteristic of a particular social environment and passed down through generations via learning processes. LC was determined using indicators of tradition and patrilineality from Fatonah et al. (2024). Two items were used: (1) The traditions and customs in East Nusa Tenggara affect my work and life and (2) the patrilineal culture (male dominance in social structure) affects my work and life. All items in this study were measured using the Five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).
Ethical considerations
Ethical clearance to undertake this study was obtained from the Parahyangan Catholic University Research Ethics Committee (Ref. No. III/AFE/MM-DE/Ktr./2025-11/004). This study involved minimal-risk survey research and did not include any clinical, biomedical or vulnerable populations. In accordance with institutional regulations, the study was determined to be exempt from formal ethical review because it used anonymised questionnaire data from adult participants and did not collect sensitive personal information. All the participants provided digital informed consent prior to participation. Participation was voluntary, and respondents could withdraw at any time. Confidentiality was maintained by anonymising all responses and storing the data in a password-protected system accessible only to the research team.
Results
Research findings
The respondents’ profiles included their age, highest education levels and functional academic positions. The majority of female lecturers in East Nusa Tenggara were aged between 31 years and 40 years (53%), indicating they possessed considerable experience in carrying out various activities related to the Indonesian concept of the tridharma of Higher Education and were also found significantly busy with household responsibilities, especially with school-aged children. The next age group was 51–60 years (9%), representing a highly mature age range, typically holding the positions of Associate Professor or Full Professor.
Overall, 90% of the respondents held a Master’s degree, which was the minimum prescribed qualification to become a lecturer in higher education in Indonesia, while the remaining 10% were pursuing doctoral studies. Regarding their academic ranks, 53% were Assistant Professors (Lektor), 34% were Junior Lecturers (Asisten Ahli), 6% were Associate Professors (Lektor Kepala) and only 1% were Full Professors (Guru Besar). Meanwhile, 6% of lecturers did not yet have a functional academic position, mainly because they had been employed for less than 2 years and therefore did not meet the requirements to apply for one.
Measurement model (validity and reliability)
The measurement model was assessed for the research instruments, specifically validity and reliability tests, as shown in Table 1.
| TABLE 1: Measurement model testing results. |
The proposed research model has 22 indicators, all of which were valid according to the factor loading threshold (greater than 0.5) as suggested by Hair et al. (2019a) and reliable based on average variance extracted (AVE) ≥ 0.5 and composite reliability (CR) ≥ 0.7. Construct reliability was assessed using CR rather than Cronbach’s alpha, as CR is considered more appropriate for SEM because it accounts for standardised loadings and measurement error. All constructs demonstrated satisfactory reliability, with CR values exceeding the recommended threshold of 0.70 and AVE values above 0.50, indicating adequate internal consistency and convergent validity of the measurement model (Hair et al., 2019b).
Discriminant validity was evaluated using the Fornell–Larcker criterion, which showed that the square root of AVE for each construct exceeded the inter-construct correlations (Table 2).
| TABLE 2: Fornell–Larcker discriminant validity. |
The above results indicate that DR, LC, LP and LAC meet this criterion. However, FS and OS do not fully satisfy the requirement, as their correlations with other constructs are higher than their respective √AVE values. This suggests a strong empirical association between FS and OS although both constructs were retained because of their distinct theoretical meanings.
Measurement model (model fit)
Notably, factor loading values alone are insufficient to confirm the model’s acceptability. The overall model fit indices must also be considered, as emphasised by statistical experts (Hair et al., 2019a).
Table 3 presents five model fit indices, including minimum discrepancy/degrees of freedom (CMIN/df), Chi-square (χ2), root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), goodness-of-fit index (GFI) and comparative fit index (CFI), all indicating good fit. Thus, it can be concluded that the research model was appropriate and fit well.
| TABLE 3: Research results: Goodness-of-fit index. |
Structural model
Hypothesis testing was conducted to determine the statistical significance of the correlations among the latent variables in the developed structural model. Each path was tested based on standardised coefficient values, standard error, critical ratio (CR) and p-value. In CB-SEM, a parameter estimate is considered statistically significant when the CR exceeds ± 1.96 at the 0.05 significance level (Byrne, 2016). The structural model testing is illustrated in Figure 2, with the regression weights detailed in Table 4.
The research hypotheses were tested using SEM with AMOS. The results shown in Table 4 indicate the following: (1) H1 was not supported: DR did not have a significant effect on female lecturers’ performance (β = 0.061, CR = 0.576, p = 0.564); (2) H2 was supported: FS significantly had a significant effect on female lecturers’ performance (β = 0.301, CR = 2.126, p = 0.034); (3) H3 was supported: OS had a significant effect on female lecturers’ performance (β = 0.424, CR = 2.574, p = 0.010); (4) H4 was supported: LC had a significant effect on female lecturers’ performance (β = 0.196, CR = 2.988, p = 0.003); (5) H5 was not supported: DR had a significant effect on female lecturers’ academic career (β = 0.227, CR = 2.194, p = 0.028); (6) H6 was not supported: FS did not have a significant effect on female lecturers’ academic career (β = 0.049, CR = 0.351, p = 0.725); (7) H7 was supported: OS had a significant effect on female lecturers’ academic career (β = 0.336, CR = 2.036, p = 0.042); (8) H8 was supported: LC had a significant effect on female lecturers’ academic career (β = 0.185, CR = 2.788, p = 0.005) and (9) H9 was supported: LP had a significant effect on female lecturers’ academic career (β = 0.291, CR = 3.553, p = 0.000).
Discussion
The DR undertaken by female lecturers, serving as educators in higher education and as homemakers, are often considered factors that could impact their performance. The results revealed that DR had an insignificant effect on female lecturers’ performance in East Nusa Tenggara. Thus, H1 is not supported. This finding contradicts those of previous studies, which suggested that DR had a significant effect on female lecturers’ performance (Fatma, 2020; Flora et al., 2021). Female lecturers simultaneously manage domestic and professional responsibilities; they can do so without experiencing a decline in performance. These findings contradict the Role Theory (Biddle, 1979), which posits that individuals with multiple roles are prone to role conflict. The measurement of DR in this study focused on examining the extent to which female lecturers simultaneously perform their roles as mothers, wives, homemakers and academics. The non-significant effect suggests that the mere fulfilment of multiple roles does not automatically reduce academic performance. Instead, performance outcomes appear to be more robustly associated with institutional and social support factors than with role occupancy itself.
Support from the social environment, particularly from the family, plays a critical role in shaping female lecturers’ performance. These study findings elucidate that FS has a positive and significant effect on female lecturers’ performance, aligning with the second hypothesis and supporting previous research (Mukarramah and Chalil, 2020). The findings support H2. Family support, in the form of practical assistance, emotional encouragement and moral backing, enables female lecturers to better manage their dual responsibilities, thereby facilitating the effective implementation of the tridharma of Higher Education. This result reinforces the notion that LP is not solely determined by individual competence but also by social support from the family. However, this positive and significant effect was limited to performance outcomes and did not extend to academic career advancement, indicating that FS may function primarily as an immediate resource for daily academic tasks rather than as a structural determinant of promotion or rank progression.
Organisational support from higher education institutions in East Nusa Tenggara was proven to have a positive and significant effect on female lecturers’ performance. The findings support H3. Such support might include institutional policies, adequate work facilities, flexible scheduling and a conducive work environment, all contributing to enhanced quality and productivity of the lecturers. This study validates the third hypothesis and aligns with previous findings (Ariarni & Afrianty, 2017; Chen et al., 2020), stating that OS positively correlates with improved employee performance. Female lecturers who feel valued and supported by their institutions are more likely to be confident and committed in carrying out the tridharma responsibilities. These results align OS theory postulated by Eisenberger et al. (1986), by asserting that when organisations demonstrate genuine concern for their employees’ well-being and contributions, individuals reciprocate with enhanced performance and loyalty.
Local culture remarkable influences diverse aspects of life, including the higher education sector in East Nusa Tenggara, where traditional values, social norms and customary practices are still highly respected. This study confirmed that LC had a positive and significant effect on female lecturers’ performance, supporting the fourth hypothesis and aligning with prior studies (Riana et al., 2022). In East Nusa Tenggara, societal expectations regarding gender roles remain strong, especially within patrilineal communities where men are seen as leaders and women are confined to domestic roles (Neonbasu & Syahrun, 2024). These findings align with the Action Theory (Parsons & Shils, 1951), which explains that a community’s value system and social norms consistently shape individual behaviour. In East Nusa Tenggara’s patrilineal system, men are positioned as decision-makers, while women are expected to support the household, including responsibilities related to customs, family and social obligations. Although cultural practices such as belis and communal ceremonies involve social obligations, the measurement items in this study capture the perceived influence of local traditions and patrilineal norms on work and life. The positive direction of this relationship indicates that local cultural values may reinforce discipline, social responsibility and commitment to professional roles, rather than functioning solely as constraints.
Dual roles showed a significant positive effect on female lecturers’ academic careers. Thus, H5 is not supported. Although DR did not significantly affect performance, the results indicate that the simultaneous fulfilment of domestic and professional roles does not necessarily hinder academic career progression. The measurement items assessed whether respondents perceived themselves as fully performing both domestic and academic roles. The findings suggest that occupying multiple roles alone does not determine career advancement, which is more structurally influenced by institutional policies and measurable performance indicators. These findings also reinforce the Role Theory (Biddle, 1979), which emphasises that individuals act based on the expectations attached to their social roles. Given the significant relationship, the findings do provide sufficient evidence to conclude that DR directly influence academic career progression. Future research should examine whether contextual or moderating variables – such as institutional workload policies or promotion requirements – shape this relationship.
This study demonstrated that FS did not have a significant effect on female lecturers’ academic careers, thereby not supporting the sixth hypothesis and contradicting previous research (Tenriawaru et al., 2023), which suggested that FS helps reduce role conflict and enables women to balance work-life with career development. Thus, H6 is not supported. Ratnayake and Rajapaksha (2021) reported that the higher the FS for married women with careers, the lower the role conflict they experience, facilitating a better balance between work-life and career progression. This result contradicts the Structural-Functional Theory (Durkheim, 2019; Spencer, 1860), which views the family as a social system that supports and maintains balance among its members. In reality, the support female lecturers receive is often only emotional or symbolic, without any tangible assistance in domestic areas such as household chores or childcare.
Organisational support plays a crucial role in the academic career development of female lecturers. This study strengthens the seventh hypothesis, showing that OS had a positive and significant effect on female lecturers’ academic careers. This finding supports H7. The present study findings align with Setyowati et al. (2018), who emphasised the importance of motivation and reward policies to support lecturers’ careers, as well as with Saleh (2015), who found that fair institutional policies could foster loyalty and commitment towards career development. A lack of institutional support, such as limited encouragement or assistance during the promotion process, has been identified as a significant obstacle for lecturers (Muluk & Amelia, 2019). These results further strengthen the OS theory (Eisenberger et al., 1986), which posits that when organisations value employees’ contributions and care about their well-being, individuals reciprocate with more loyalty and enhanced performance.
Furthermore, the current research unravelled that LC has a positive and significant effect on female lecturers’ academic careers, confirming the eighth hypothesis. This finding support H8. This indicates that local cultural values may function as motivational and social resources that support persistence and professional commitment in academic career advancement. Despite the prevailing strength of patrilineal values, many women in East Nusa Tenggara have managed to uphold cultural traditions while building successful academic careers. This finding supports previous studies, affirming that LC can affect both career planning and individual behaviour within organisations, internally and externally (Pradnyadari & Herdiyanto, 2018). It also aligns with the Action Theory (Parsons & Shils, 1951), which argues that social behaviour is shaped by prevailing societal values and norms. In this context, female lecturers in East Nusa Tenggara who could adapt to local cultural norms while pursuing academic advancement demonstrate resilience and agency. Therefore, this study not only offers new insights into the dynamic relationship between LC and women’s academic careers but also strengthens theoretical contributions regarding the role of culture in shaping professional behaviour within higher education.
Lecturer performance is a key factor in determining the success of academic careers, especially in achieving functional ranks, from Junior Lecturer (Asisten Ahli) to Full Professor (Guru Besar). For female lecturers, this challenge is even more complex because of the need to balance domestic responsibilities with professional duties. This study established that female lecturers’ performance had a significant effect on their academic careers, supporting the ninth hypothesis. This finding aligns with previous studies, which have shown that LP has a direct effect on career advancement and the overall quality of educational institutions (Goranda et al., 2021). Despite several time constraints resulting from domestic roles, many female lecturers could still demonstrate high performance.
Conclusion
This study demonstrates that the performance and academic career progression of married female lecturers with children working in higher education institutions in East Nusa Tenggara are shaped by DR, FS, OS and LC. Dual roles did not significantly influence performance but they showed a significant positive effect on academic careers, whereas FS enhanced performance but failed to affect career advancement. Variables such as OS and LC exerted significant effects on both performance and lecturer performance also had a significant direct effect on academic careers. The findings related to non-significant relationships should be interpreted cautiously, as they do not provide sufficient statistical evidence to support direct policy intervention. Instead, they highlight the need for further research to explore contextual and moderating factors that may influence these relationships within similar institutional and sociocultural contexts. The study advances the literature on women’s academic productivity within patrilineal cultural settings, though it is limited by its focus on married female lecturers with children in East Nusa Tenggara and by its reliance on a quantitative design that could not fully capture the depth of lived experience. Future research should employ mixed-methods approaches and engage more diverse participants, including male lecturers and institutional leaders, to examine whether similar patterns emerge across different demographic groups and institutional settings, incorporating additional variables – such as transformational leadership, organisational justice and inclusive organisational culture – to generate a more comprehensive understanding of how gender, culture, performance and academic career development interact.
Acknowledgements
Data for this study were collected using a questionnaire distributed to female lecturers via Google Forms to obtain information on respondent characteristics and on the variables used in this study, namely dual roles, family support, organisational support, local culture, lecturer’s performance and lecturers’ academic careers.
This submission is based on research originally conducted as part of Rosadalima Tisu doctoral dissertation titled, ‘The Effect of Dual Roles, Family Support, Organisational Support, And Local Culture on Performance and Its Implications for The Academic Careers of Female Lecturers in East Nusa Tenggara Province’ submitted to the Doctoral Programme in Economics, Faculty of Economics, Parahyangan Catholic University in 2025. The dissertation was supervised by Hamfri Djajadikerta and Catharina Dewi Wulansari. The dissertation was reworked, revised and adapted into a journal article for publication.
Competing interests
The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.
CRediT authorship contribution
Rosadalima Tisu: Conceptualisation, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Resources, Software, Validation, Visualisation, Writing – original draft. Hamfri Djajadikerta: Conceptualisation, Supervision, Validation, Writing – review & editing. Catharina Dewi Wulansari: Conceptualisation, Supervision, Validation, Writing – review & editing.
Funding information
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.
Data availability
The data that support the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, Rosadalima Tisu, upon reasonable request.
Disclaimer
The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and are the product of professional research. They do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency or that of the publisher. The authors are responsible for this article’s results, findings and content.
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