Job performance theory provides the primary conceptual basis for this study; this theory defines performance as work behaviours and outcomes that contribute to organisational goals (Colquitt et al., 2015). In organisational contexts, performance is shaped by individual competencies, motivation and situational factors that influence employees’ ability to perform their roles effectively. In Indonesian higher education, LP is reflected in the fulfilment of three essential roles: teaching, research and community service responsibilities, which function as measurable indicators of academic productivity and professional achievement (Direktorat Jendral Pendidikan Tinggi [Directorate General of Higher Education], 2010). Thus, job performance theory offers a strong foundation for understanding how lecturers’ behaviours translate into performance outcomes within institutional contexts.

To extend this perspective further, this study also draws on the job demands–resources (JD-R) framework, which explains how performance is shaped by the interaction between role demands and available resources (Bakker & Demerouti, 2017). Job demands – such as workload pressures, time constraints and role conflict – require sustained effort, likely causing strain (Demerouti et al., 2001), whereas resources in the JD-R framework include organisational, social and contextual factors that help individuals cope with these demands and maintain performance. In the context of female academics, DR are conceptualised as key role demands that may generate competing professional and domestic pressures, while FS, OS and LC function as contextual resources that may either constrain or facilitate lecturers’ performance and academic career progression.

Overall, both job performance theory and the JD-R framework provide a comprehensive theoretical foundation for this study. By integrating role demands (DR) and contextual resources (FS, OS and LC) into a unified model, this research extends existing performance frameworks to better capture the sociocultural realities that female lecturers in Indonesian higher education face. This integrated model addresses a gap in prior research, which has often examined individual or institutional determinants in isolation and offers a more robust explanation of how multiple contextual factors interact to influence LP and academic career progressions.

Performance, an important term in management, refers to an individual’s achievements or work outcomes in accomplishing their duties and responsibilities effectively and efficiently within a specific time frame to achieve organisational goals (Jannah, 2016; Marwansyah, 2014). In the context of higher education, LP is a key indicator of an institution’s success because lecturers play a strategic role in achieving national educational goals, namely to enlighten the nation’s life and create a just and prosperous society. Aligning with the job performance theory, in the present study, LP is conceptualised as work-related behaviours and measurable outcomes that contribute to institutional goals, shaped by both individual capacities and contextual conditions (Colquitt et al., 2015).

In Indonesia, the conceptualisation of LP is institutionally grounded in the tridharma of Higher Education, a national higher education framework that defines the core academic obligations of lecturers. The tridharma comprises three interrelated domains: education and teaching, research and scholarly publication and community service. Rather than functioning merely as a philosophical principle, the tridharma operates as a formal performance standard embedded in national regulations governing lecturer workload (Beban Kerja Dosen [BKD]), evaluation and promotion in Indonesia (Direktorat Jendral Pendidikan Tinggi [Directorate General of Higher Education], 2010). The tridharma implementation is regulated through many workload requirements, including teaching credit loads and mandatory scholarly or community service outputs, while professors have additional scholarly obligations as an integral part of their academic career advancement (Minister of Administrative and Bureaucratic Reform Regulation No. 17 of 2013 [Ministry of Administrative and Bureaucratic Reform, 2013b]; Muhalim et al., 2025). The tridharma framework functions as a comprehensive performance evaluation system in Indonesia (Alamanda et al., 2026; Bungai & Perdana, 2018; Kartika et al., 2025; Masnun et al., 2025).

The tridharma framework evaluates a lecturer’s performance based on the extent to which academics fulfil measurable achievements across these three domains, both quantitatively and qualitatively (Arisal, 2023; Marsithah, 2022). In practical terms, this includes numerous activities such as delivering lectures (minimum teaching load of 12 credits and a maximum of 16 credits per semester), supervising students, developing course materials, publishing scholarly articles, conducting research projects, securing research funding and engaging in community outreach or professional service (at least one research or community service activity annually), which serve as formal benchmarks for evaluating lecturers’ performance. These activities represent measurable indicators of academic productivity and contribution within higher education institutions. Hence, this study conceptualises LP as not only general job effectiveness but also the extent to which lecturers fulfil their tridharma responsibilities in a balanced and sustainable manner. This constitutes the bedrock for academic evaluation and recognition within higher education institutions.

A career is a series of jobs pursued by an individual, each with a particular role (Hoffman, 1976). An academic career refers to the progression of an individual within the higher education profession. It is characterised by increasing levels of responsibility, recognition and scholarly contribution. Unlike general career paths, academic careers follow a structured trajectory shaped by strict traditional institutional regulations, performance evaluation systems and scholarly productivity.

In Indonesia, lecturers’ academic careers are structured through functional academic ranks, beginning with Assistant Professor [Asisten Ahli], followed by Associate Lecturer [Lektor], Senior Lecturer [Lektor Kepala] and Professor [Guru Besar]. Progression in this ladder necessitates accumulation of cumulative credit points [Angka Kredit or KUM] that are earned primarily from tridharma activities and performance-based workload evaluation. Under the latest higher education regulation (Ministry of Higher Education, Science, and Technology, 2025), the minimum cumulative credit required for promotion is 150 KUM for Assistant Professor, 200 KUM for Associate Lecturer, 450 KUM for Senior Lecturer and 850 KUM for Professor. This regulation emphasises the need for conversion of lecturer workload outcomes – particularly research and publication outputs – into credit points for promotion to the next levels, underscoring the central role of measurable academic productivity in career progression. Promotion eligibility also requires securing a National Lecturer Identification Number (NIDN), appropriate academic qualifications, educator certification and continuous professional development.

Despite this structured pathway for promotion of lecturers, academic career advancement is shaped by both facilitating and constraining factors. Research productivity, publication in reputable journals, institutional support, research funding and professional networks facilitate promotion although enormous teaching loads, administrative duties, limited research opportunities and work–family demands may hinder smooth progression in career trajectory. These constraints are particularly salient for women in academia, whose dual professional and domestic roles can affect research productivity, promotion timelines and access to leadership opportunities (Pelletier et al., 2024). Structural pressures from national policies further complicate these challenges. Low publication productivity – especially in nationally reputable (Science and Technology Index [SINTA]-indexed) and internationally indexed journals such as Scopus-indexed journals – remains a concern (Setyowati et al., 2018). Moreover, the requirement to publish in reputable international journals for doctoral graduation (Directorate General of Higher Education, 2012), together with strict timelines and cumulative credit requirements in academic rank promotion (Ministry of Administrative and Bureaucratic Reform, 2013a), makes the competitive and performance-based nature of academic career progression more difficult. As promotion eligibility is formally determined by measurable tridharma achievements converted into cumulative credit points, LP constitutes a central mechanism driving academic career advancement.

Based on the above findings, the following research hypotheses were formulated:

Dual roles occur when an individual simultaneously carries out two or more social roles (especially in the professional and domestic spheres), such as being a professional worker in the public space while also acting simultaneously as a wife, mother and household manager (Kang & Jang, 2020; Sinha, 2017). Several theoretical perspectives suggest that multiple role engagement generates positive spillover effects. Role accumulation and work–family enrichment theories argue that combining professional and family roles can enhance psychological resources and resilience (Barnett & Hyde, 2001; Greenhaus & Powell, 2006), and evidence in academic contexts indicates that family responsibilities do not necessarily reduce research productivity (Fox, 2005). Within the JD-R framework, DR can be conceptualised as a form of role demand that generates time pressure, work–family conflict and psychological strain, potentially influencing performance and career outcomes. This concept is closely related to the dual cultural sphere, which refers to the division between the domestic and public spheres that requires women to balance both in their daily lives (Rosaldo et al., 1974). Recent empirical studies show that work–family conflict directly affects the performance and well-being of female lecturers. Yuliaty (2024) found that dual role conflict lowers academic performance, whereas Wei et al. (2025) documented that a high academic workload leads to burnout among female lecturers. Additionally, Hong et al. (2025) highlighted parenthood penalties, such as caregiving responsibilities, which hamper women’s academic career achievements. However, this impact can be mitigated by timely OS. A study done in Malaysia revealed that work overload directly increases work–family conflict among female lecturers, thereby resulting in reduced productivity and delayed career advancement (Nair et al., 2020).

Based on these findings, the following research hypotheses were formulated:

Family support refers to the attitudes, behaviours and acceptance of family members towards one another; it is expressed through emotional support, instrumental support, informational support and appraisal or recognition support (Inayah & Puryandani, 2022). In the context of working academics, FS includes emotional encouragement for career goals, shared household responsibilities, assistance with childcare, flexibility in managing domestic tasks and a proper understanding of academic work demands, such as research deadlines or travel for conferences. Conversely, limited FS may be reflected in unequal domestic workloads, lack of understanding of professional commitments or minimal involvement in caregiving responsibilities, which can increase work–family strain.

In alignment with the structural-functionalism perspective, different family members perform complementary roles that help maintain balance within the family system and support each individual’s participation in broader social and professional contexts (e.g. the father as an instrumental figure and the mother as an expressive figure) (Sanner et al., 2024). Family support not only acts as a buffer against stress but also serves as a psychological reinforcement, positively influencing job performance and academic career development (Chan et al., 2020). Female academics who receive emotional and practical support from their families tend to show higher productivity and greater stress resilience (Cao et al., 2024; Fayaz & Gulzar, 2025), whereas insufficient FS may enhance role conflict and contribute to slower career progression (Karadağ & Şahin, 2025). However, FS does not always translate into improved LP, particularly in the transition towards professorship, where structural requirements, publication intensity and institutional criteria play a more dominant role (Setyawan et al., 2020). In such cases, performance at the professorship level may depend more heavily on research output, academic networking and institutional recognition than on the underlying family-related support mechanisms. These findings indicate that the influence of FS varies depending on career stage and institutional context. Therefore, examining the role of performance among female lecturers in Indonesian higher education remains essential, especially in determining whether FS functions as a significant resource in shaping both performance and broader academic career trajectories. Based on these considerations, the research hypotheses (H2 and H6) were formulated as follows:

Organisational support refers to the extent to which employees feel that their contributions are valued and their well-being is cared for by the institution or employer (Eisenberger et al., 1986). This perception fosters a positive attitude towards the organisation, encouraging loyalty, commitment and improved performance (Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002). Organisational support includes promotions, recognition, fair treatment, access to information and assistance in completing tasks (Fuller et al., 2006). Perceptions of OS are also affected by how institutions respond to employee input, show concern for their well-being and address the problems the employees face (Eisenberger et al., 1986). Such support meets socio-emotional needs and enhances motivation and academic performance. Kızıl (2024) established a direct positive correlation between perceived OS and job performance. Jamunarani and Syed (2024) concluded that supervisor support contributes to improving employee productivity and job satisfaction. However, while many studies report positive associations, research indicates that its effect on performance may operate indirectly through mechanisms such as commitment or work engagement, thereby suggesting that OS does not always translate into immediate measurable outcomes (Kurtessis et al., 2017). Within highly performance-based academic systems, structural productivity indicators may outweigh the motivational effects of perceived OS (Shin & Jung, 2014). Despite these inconsistencies, some theoretical perspectives indicate that OS remains an important institutional resource to boost motivation and productivity of lecturers. In the Indonesian higher education context, supportive institutional environments are therefore expected to directly facilitate female lecturers’ performance and academic career advancement. Based on these considerations, the following two research hypotheses were proposed:

Local culture, a set of beliefs, norms, values and behaviours, is inherited as the traditions of a community (Fatonah et al., 2024), reflecting the unique identity of a local society (Hendra et al., 2023). In collectivist societies, local cultural traditions often function as not only systems of social control but also sources of social cohesion, mutual support and shared responsibility.

One distinctive tradition still preserved in East Nusa Tenggara is belis or bride wealth, in which the groom’s family gives offerings to the bride’s family as a form of respect and acknowledgement of women (Jovani, 2020). While these conventional practices reflect patriarchal and patrilineal structures; they also reinforce extended family solidarity and collective responsibility. Family members often provide emotional support, childcare assistance and shared domestic labour, enabling women to participate in professional activities. In this sense, cultural expectations of collective cooperation may indirectly support female lecturers’ productivity by distributing household responsibilities across extended many family networks. Similarly, customary practices such as funerals and communal ceremonies require collective participation and resource sharing. Although these obligations may increase social demands, they also strengthen social capital, kinship networks and reciprocal support systems that can mitigate work-related stress and enhance resilience. Strong communal ties and collective identity may motivate individuals to achieve professionally to uphold family reputation and social standing.

Action Theory (Parsons & Shils, 1951) divides culture into four systems: the cultural system, the social system, the personality system and the organic system. In collectivist contexts, these cultural systems may reinforce responsibility, discipline and social support structures that encourage professional commitment and persistence. Some empirical studies suggest that cultural values emphasising family cohesion, social support and collective responsibility can positively influence women’s work engagement and career outcomes (Ayoola-akinjobi, 2024; Li, 2022). However, some empirical evidence indicates that cultural norms may produce divergent outcomes for women’s academic work. Traditional gender expectations embedded in cultural systems may constrain women’s professional advancement, yet social role theory also indicates that cultural norms can foster adaptive role behaviours and supportive structures that sustain professional engagement (Aiston & Jung, 2015; Eagly & Wood, 2012). These contrasting perspectives indicate the context-dependent nature of LC. In regions such as East Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia, where collective responsibility and kinship networks remain strong, LC may function not only as a constraint but also as a resource that reinforces professional commitment and resilience. Based on these findings, the following two research hypotheses were formulated:

Figure 1 depicts the conceptual framework of the current research based on theoretical analysis and previous research findings.

As previously mentioned, this study administered a survey questionnaire as the data collection technique. The questionnaire consisted of two parts. the first part covered the demographic profiles of the respondents, including age, highest level of education and academic rank. The second part included items used to determine latent variables such as LAC, LP, DR, OS, FS and LC. These measures were drawn from the literature review and were adapted and customised to suit the needs of this research.

Lecturer academic career refers to the functional academic ranks (e.g. assistant lecturer, lecturer, senior lecturer and professor) and the time taken for promotion to higher academic ranks (based on Ministerial Decree No. 209/P/2024 [Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology, 2024] and Ministry of Administrative and Bureaucratic Reform Regulation No. 17 of 2013 [Ministry of Administrative and Bureaucratic Reform, 2013b]). Specifically, two items were used: (1) the current academic rank with answer options: 1 = no academic rank, 2 = assistant lecturer, 3 = lecturer, 4 = senior lecturer, 5 = professor; and (2) the time it took to be promoted to the current rank from the previous one. The response options were: 1 = more than 8 years, 2 = 7–8 years, 3 = more than 5–6 years, 4 = more than 3–4 years and 5 = 2 years.

Lecturer performance was evaluated using the tridharma principles of Higher Education as outlined in the BKD Guidelines by Directorate General of Higher Education (2010), including teaching activities (delivering lectures and supervising and examining students’ theses), research (number and quality of published scientific works) and community service activities (public outreach programmes). The items were: (1) teaching, (2) thesis supervision per semester, (3) number of scientific journals published in one semester, (4) quality of scientific journals published in one semester and (5) number of outputs from community service activities in one semester.

Dual roles refer to the condition in which female lecturers perform two or more social roles simultaneously. Indicators for DR were based on domestic roles (as wife, mother and homemaker) and public roles (as a lecturer), adapted from Greenhaus and Beutell (1985). Three more items were used to measure the dual role played by female lecturers:

Family support refers to female lecturers’ perception of the extent to which their family members show positive attitudes, provide tangible help, relevant information and appreciation for their academic roles and work. This variable was measured using indicators from Parasuraman et al. (1992), including emotional support (recognition), instrumental support (trust, time and money) and informational support (advice). Five items were developed to evaluate FS, three of which are furnished hereunder:

Organisational support refers to female lecturers’ perception of how much their institutions value their academic contributions and care about their professional and personal well-being. Indicators for OS were adapted from Rhoades and Eisenberger (2002), including organisational rewards and promotion, supportive working conditions (autonomy), supervisor support (further studies) and procedural and social justice (lecturer certification). Five items were used to measure OS; three of them are listed below:

Local culture denotes a set of values, norms, customs and behavioural patterns characteristic of a particular social environment and passed down through generations via learning processes. LC was determined using indicators of tradition and patrilineality from Fatonah et al. (2024). Two items were used: (1) The traditions and customs in East Nusa Tenggara affect my work and life and (2) the patrilineal culture (male dominance in social structure) affects my work and life. All items in this study were measured using the Five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).

Ethical clearance to undertake this study was obtained from the Parahyangan Catholic University Research Ethics Committee (Ref. No. III/AFE/MM-DE/Ktr./2025-11/004). This study involved minimal-risk survey research and did not include any clinical, biomedical or vulnerable populations. In accordance with institutional regulations, the study was determined to be exempt from formal ethical review because it used anonymised questionnaire data from adult participants and did not collect sensitive personal information. All the participants provided digital informed consent prior to participation. Participation was voluntary, and respondents could withdraw at any time. Confidentiality was maintained by anonymising all responses and storing the data in a password-protected system accessible only to the research team.

The respondents’ profiles included their age, highest education levels and functional academic positions. The majority of female lecturers in East Nusa Tenggara were aged between 31 years and 40 years (53%), indicating they possessed considerable experience in carrying out various activities related to the Indonesian concept of the tridharma of Higher Education and were also found significantly busy with household responsibilities, especially with school-aged children. The next age group was 51–60 years (9%), representing a highly mature age range, typically holding the positions of Associate Professor or Full Professor.

Overall, 90% of the respondents held a Master’s degree, which was the minimum prescribed qualification to become a lecturer in higher education in Indonesia, while the remaining 10% were pursuing doctoral studies. Regarding their academic ranks, 53% were Assistant Professors (Lektor), 34% were Junior Lecturers (Asisten Ahli), 6% were Associate Professors (Lektor Kepala) and only 1% were Full Professors (Guru Besar). Meanwhile, 6% of lecturers did not yet have a functional academic position, mainly because they had been employed for less than 2 years and therefore did not meet the requirements to apply for one.

The measurement model was assessed for the research instruments, specifically validity and reliability tests, as shown in Table 1.

The proposed research model has 22 indicators, all of which were valid according to the factor loading threshold (greater than 0.5) as suggested by Hair et al. (2019a) and reliable based on average variance extracted (AVE) ≥ 0.5 and composite reliability (CR) ≥ 0.7. Construct reliability was assessed using CR rather than Cronbach’s alpha, as CR is considered more appropriate for SEM because it accounts for standardised loadings and measurement error. All constructs demonstrated satisfactory reliability, with CR values exceeding the recommended threshold of 0.70 and AVE values above 0.50, indicating adequate internal consistency and convergent validity of the measurement model (Hair et al., 2019b).

Discriminant validity was evaluated using the Fornell–Larcker criterion, which showed that the square root of AVE for each construct exceeded the inter-construct correlations (Table 2).

The above results indicate that DR, LC, LP and LAC meet this criterion. However, FS and OS do not fully satisfy the requirement, as their correlations with other constructs are higher than their respective √AVE values. This suggests a strong empirical association between FS and OS although both constructs were retained because of their distinct theoretical meanings.

Notably, factor loading values alone are insufficient to confirm the model’s acceptability. The overall model fit indices must also be considered, as emphasised by statistical experts (Hair et al., 2019a).

Table 3 presents five model fit indices, including minimum discrepancy/degrees of freedom (CMIN/df), Chi-square (χ²), root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), goodness-of-fit index (GFI) and comparative fit index (CFI), all indicating good fit. Thus, it can be concluded that the research model was appropriate and fit well.

Hypothesis testing was conducted to determine the statistical significance of the correlations among the latent variables in the developed structural model. Each path was tested based on standardised coefficient values, standard error, critical ratio (CR) and p-value. In CB-SEM, a parameter estimate is considered statistically significant when the CR exceeds ± 1.96 at the 0.05 significance level (Byrne, 2016). The structural model testing is illustrated in Figure 2, with the regression weights detailed in Table 4.

The research hypotheses were tested using SEM with AMOS. The results shown in Table 4 indicate the following: (1) H1 was not supported: DR did not have a significant effect on female lecturers’ performance (β = 0.061, CR = 0.576, p = 0.564); (2) H2 was supported: FS significantly had a significant effect on female lecturers’ performance (β = 0.301, CR = 2.126, p = 0.034); (3) H3 was supported: OS had a significant effect on female lecturers’ performance (β = 0.424, CR = 2.574, p = 0.010); (4) H4 was supported: LC had a significant effect on female lecturers’ performance (β = 0.196, CR = 2.988, p = 0.003); (5) H5 was not supported: DR had a significant effect on female lecturers’ academic career (β = 0.227, CR = 2.194, p = 0.028); (6) H6 was not supported: FS did not have a significant effect on female lecturers’ academic career (β = 0.049, CR = 0.351, p = 0.725); (7) H7 was supported: OS had a significant effect on female lecturers’ academic career (β = 0.336, CR = 2.036, p = 0.042); (8) H8 was supported: LC had a significant effect on female lecturers’ academic career (β = 0.185, CR = 2.788, p = 0.005) and (9) H9 was supported: LP had a significant effect on female lecturers’ academic career (β = 0.291, CR = 3.553, p = 0.000).