Original Research

Exploring the occupational health and safety risks of truck drivers in the South African context

Agisanang Tsheola, Masase E. Mageza-Mokhethi, Jeremy Mitonga-Monga

Received: 03 Mar. 2026; Accepted: 14 July 2026; Published: 18 Sept. 2026

Copyright: © 2026. The Authors. Licensee: AOSIS.
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Abstract

Orientation: This study examined the occupational health and safety (OHS) risks of truck drivers in the trucking industry. Truck drivers are exposed to risks because of the nature of their role, and these risks can significantly affect their day-to-day lives.

Research purpose: The purpose of the study was to provide insights into OHS concerns that truck drivers encounter owing to their role.

Motivation for the study: Truck drivers play an essential role in South Africa by transporting different products across the country. However, their role exposes them to OHS risks, and previous literature suggests that these risks stem from their working conditions; hence, the need for and focus of this study.

Research approach/design and method: The study utilised a qualitative research design, conducting semi-structured interviews with 16 truck drivers to gather knowledge about the topic. The study was conducted at a retail distribution centre in Johannesburg, Gauteng Province.

Main findings: The study found that truck drivers are exposed to the following OHS risks: accidents, unsafe fuel stations, hijackings, mental health issues, loss of employment, crime, truck attacks, and health challenges.

Practical/managerial implications: Occupational health and safety practitioners and the trucking industry should ensure that their risk assessments also cater for the hazards that truck drivers experience while travelling on the road.

Contribution/value-add: This study raises awareness around the OHS concerns of truck drivers.

Keywords: truck drivers; occupational health and safety; risks; trucking industry; South Africa.

Introduction

Truck driving is a crucial economic activity in South Africa as it contributes to the country’s economy (Magazi & Mohammed, 2015). Truck drivers are often responsible for finalising the supply chain management cycle by transporting products over short, medium, and long distances to customers (Rodrigue, 2020). According to Lalla-Edward et al. (2019), South Africa employs over 70 000 truck drivers who transport goods within South Africa and to neighbouring countries. The occupation often faces operational challenges that relate to working conditions, which ultimately impact their health and safety (Kolobe, 2021). Truck drivers are exposed to extended working hours, strict delivery deadlines, inadequate rest opportunities, and limited rest areas, which add to the emotional and physical strains that they experience (Boyce, 2016; Lalla-Edward et al., 2019). Moreover, travelling for extended hours poses a physical risk to truck drivers, as it can lead to fatal accidents, serious injuries, or permanent disability (Boyce, 2016).

The long hours that truck drivers work lead to overfatigue and impaired concentration, increasing their risk of being involved in road accidents (Wise et al., 2019). The challenges that truck drivers experience within their role not only affect their safety but can also negatively impact general road safety and other road users. According to Randall (2019), in South Africa, road accidents contribute to the high death tally, which is about 26 deaths per 100 000 inhabitants, while the country has one of the highest death rates globally. Similarly, a road safety survey conducted by Webfleet (2022) found that 71% of South African truck drivers had been involved in road accidents due to driving while overfatigued. Supporting this finding, Chen et al. (2021) assert that accidents involving trucks occur because truck drivers work long hours and often find themselves fatigued. However, road accidents are not the only factors that jeopardise the safety of truck drivers on the roads. In addition, Shweni (2021) discovered that truck drivers are not safe during their travelling journeys because if they stop on highways, they are also at risk of being victims of criminal activities such as cargo and wheel theft, as well as theft of their personal items.

There is currently limited research in South Africa on the occupational health and safety (OHS) of truck drivers. This is confirmed by Kolobe (2021), who asserted that there is limited information that focuses on the conditions that truck drivers are exposed to due to the nature of their role. Therefore, the study focused specifically on truck drivers who transport products to customers across extensive road networks in South Africa and examined their OHS in this industry. The purpose of the study was to provide insights into OHS concerns that truck drivers encounter owing to their roles. This study is important for the field of employment relations and human resource management as it provides insights that may assist the government, the trucking industry and employment relations, as well as human resource management professionals, to understand the OHS risks to which truck drivers are exposed. Furthermore, the study raises awareness around truck drivers’ OHS concerns. Hence, the objective of the study was to identify and understand these OHS risks to which truck drivers are exposed in a South African context.

Literature review

South African transportation services research context

Transport services are significant in South Africa because the sector contributes to the country’s economy (Magazi & Mohammed, 2015). For instance, Statistics South Africa (Stats SA, 2025) released a report in Quarter 1 of 2025 that indicates that the transport sector made a positive contribution, as the transport and communication sector increased by 2.4%. In addition, the transport sector contributes 6.5% to South Africa’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (Labour Research Service, 2022). Furthermore, Clarke (2023) adds that the road freight industry is responsible for transporting 80% of South Africa’s products by road. However, despite truck drivers playing a critical role in transporting products, their work is often hindered by obstacles stemming from their working conditions (Boyce, 2016). According to Kolobe (2021), these conditions pose a risk to the health and safety of truck drivers, as they are often involved in road accidents because of long working hours that cause fatigue, as well as back and shoulder pain. Furthermore, they are also vulnerable to criminal activities during their work-related road trips (Shweni, 2021).

The pluralist approach to the trucking industry

The pluralist approach was applied to this study to understand OHS hazards to which truck drivers may be exposed. According to Van Buren (2022), pluralism involves multiple parties with different priorities and interests in the workplace. The pluralist relationship consists of management, employees and trade unions (Sambrook, 2021). The role of management is to provide a safe working environment that is free of hazards. While the employees have the duty to follow the health and safety procedures, identify risks in the workplace and inform the employer and also ensure that they do not put safety of themselves or other employees at risk. The trade unions represent the employees’ opinions when negotiating for better working conditions that do not affect the health and safety of truck drivers. As stated by Kaufman et al. (2021), the different priorities that parties have may result in workplace conflict. For instance, in this study, the priority of employers in the trucking industry is to make a profit by ensuring that truck drivers deliver loads to customers in a timely manner. As a result, employers set irregular schedules that do not comply with South Africa’s working hours, pressurising truck drivers to deliver as many loads as possible, as they earn based on the number of kilometres driven or the total number of loads that are delivered. Conversely, the priority of employees is to earn a decent salary within a role that does not affect their health and safety. The different priorities may result in conflict that cannot be avoided owing to the parties not reaching consensus (Van Buren, 2022). Consequently, trade unions exist so that they may negotiate with their employers in respect of satisfactory working conditions that do not jeopardise the health and safety of the employees while at work.

The role of truck drivers

According to Shweni (2021), truck drivers are responsible for delivering products to clients and are remunerated for fulfilling tasks of transporting goods. However, according to Heaton et al. (2024) and Makuto et al. (2023), truck drivers are not limited to only transporting cargo; their role sometimes extends to loading and offloading cargo, inspecting the truck before departure and arrival, confirming that the cargo that is delivered matches the delivery note and completing travel sheets.

Occupational health and well-being of truck drivers

The health of truck drivers is mostly affected by working conditions that have been established in the trucking industry. There is limited research in South Africa currently that explores or investigates the OHS of truck drivers. It is unfortunate that their role can compromise their health severely. Their working conditions may expose them to health concerns such as poor eye visibility, chronic fatigue and cardiovascular disease (Boyce, 2016). Truck drivers work long hours owing to the scope of their work and are often faced with fatigue, while being prone to insomnia and chronic sleep conditions, which may ultimately affect their circadian rhythm (Cori et al., 2021). The sedentary nature of the job exposes them to back and neck pains, which may lead to severe musculoskeletal illnesses (Combs et al., 2018). Furthermore, Amoadu et al. (2024) mention that strict deadlines, long working hours, work pressure and unstructured working environments expose truck drivers to chronic stress. Truck drivers spend extended periods without seeing their family and friends, and this isolation may cause anxiety and stress that could present mental illnesses such as depression (Tripathi & Pareek, 2025). Furthermore, the demands of the job result in unhealthy eating patterns as they have limited access to balanced meals.

Exposure to road accidents

Various factors in the trucking industry pose a serious risk to the road safety of truck drivers as they are likely to be involved in accidents owing to their working conditions. While road accidents can be caused by exhaustion, Naude and Chitakunye (2014) assert that human and environmental factors can cause traffic accidents. For instance, human errors such as speeding and overloading add to road accidents in which truck drivers are involved, whereas environmental factors such as poor road conditions and road works further contribute to hazards that truck drivers experience (Naude & Chitakunye, 2014). In addition, severe weather conditions such as heavy rains contribute to the risk of accidents as the roads become slippery and it takes time for a truck to brake or stop in time to prevent an accident. This explains why during heavy rainfall truck drivers are found to be involved in road accidents (Jie et al., 2019). Despite the above-mentioned factors, it can be argued that the majority of road accidents that truck drivers are involved in are predominantly caused by fatigue, as they rarely rest and travel on the roads for extended hours. Furthermore, Shin and Jeong (2023) aver that the profession of being a truck driver has several hazards that can result in fatal accidents. To support this assertion, Table 1 displays statistics, as revealed by the Road Traffic Management Corporation (RTMC, 2023), which show that 3546 trucks were involved in road accidents from 2018 to 2022 and across all provinces in South Africa, totalling 2926 fatalities.

Exposure to crime

Road accidents are not the only hazard that can compromise the safety of truck drivers. Criminal activities also pose a challenge to the safety of truck drivers. According to Ekwall and Lantz (2018), truck drivers face robberies, where they are physically assaulted during road trips after being forced to get out of the trucks, allowing the robbers to unload the cargo into their own delivery vans before they flee the scene. Shweni’s (2021) study found that truck drivers experience crime at fuel stations, where their personal items are often stolen. Geldenhuys (2015) states that, indeed, truck drivers attract perpetrators owing to the expensive cargo that they transport. Kolobe (2021) claims that driving trucks poses many hazards and risks that can significantly affect the lives of truck drivers, as these risks can lead to loss of life.

Truck attacks are becoming a serious problem in South Africa, leading to injuries or death. According to Geldenhuys (2021), South Africa has seen an increase in the burning of trucks, as 1400 trucks were burned or damaged by fire between 2018 and 2019. There is a perception that burning these trucks symbolises resentment on the part of South Africans who believe that foreign immigrants are taking their jobs as truck drivers. Geldenhuys (2021) posits that over 200 foreign truck drivers were killed in 2020. However, Manyane (2023) states that it is not clear whether truck attacks are caused because immigrant workers are hired or if it is merely an act of economic sabotage. Regardless of the cause, the act of killing foreign truck drivers and the burning of trucks is an infringement of human rights. Chapter 2, Section 11 of the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa (1996) states that ‘everyone has the right to life’. Furthermore, Section 12(1)(c) states that everyone should be able to move freely without being subjected to violence. This shows that truck drivers should be protected from violence as driving trucks is their source of income so that they are able to support their families; however, they are subjected to hazards that can lead to fatalities.

Occupational Health and Safety Act No. 85 of 1993

The Occupational Health and Safety Act (OSHA) No. 85 of 1993 provides guidelines for both employers and employees regarding health and safety in the workplace. The OHSA No. 85 of 1993 states that an employer must provide a safe working environment for employees and ensure that their activities do not present any OHS risk. Furthermore, the Act states that an employer must conduct a Hazard Identification and Risk Assessment (HIRA) to identify risks that are associated with the employees’ duties, as well as risks that may exist in the workplace. Thereafter, the employer must identify ways to prevent or mitigate the identified risks. According to the OHSA No. 85 of 1993, the employer has a duty to inform the employees about the hazards and risks that were identified from the HIRA so that employees are aware and can avoid these risks. However, according to the said Act, the employer is not the only entity that has responsibilities in this regard. Employees must also abide by the organisation’s health and safety rules that have been established. Furthermore, employees must protect themselves and others from hazards and must also identify hazards and duly inform the employer about these.

Research philosophy

This study utilised interpretivism to understand the realities that truck drivers face with respect to the OHS hazards to which they are exposed. According to Hennink et al. (2020), interpretivism involves the researcher learning about the subjective meanings that participants attach to their lived experiences. The researcher’s aim was to understand the OHS risks that the job of being a truck driver entails; hence, she captured the truck drivers’ perspectives, using this knowledge to achieve the study’s objective.

Research methods and design

Exploratory research was utilised to achieve the study’s objective. According to Neuman (2014), this design is utilised for topics where there is limited information. The design was sufficient to allow the researcher to gain new insights into the OHS of truck drivers in South Africa.

Research approach

Qualitative research was employed to gain a deep understanding of the topic under study. According Hennink et al. (2020), qualitative researchers collect information from a natural setting. The approach allowed the researcher to gather in-depth knowledge about the OHS of truck drivers. Furthermore, the researcher was able to use the participants’ perspectives, drawing on the meanings they attached to the realities of their respective working environments.

Research strategy

The researcher used the phenomenology research strategy to uncover the lived experiences of truck drivers. This design is often utilised to understand the experiences of the participants based on their perceptions (Mohajan, 2018). The researcher then interpreted their perspectives to ensure that the data did not lose its validity.

Research setting

The research study was conducted within the private sector at a retail store that has a distribution centre based in Johannesburg in the Gauteng province. The retail store is one of the biggest in South Africa and sells various final end-products to customers. The distribution centre has over 100 truck drivers who are responsible for transporting bulk merchandise to different retail store branches within South Africa. This research study focused only on truck drivers at the identified organisation, where the interviews with the participants were conducted.

Entrée and establishing the researcher’s role

Prior to the study being conducted, the researcher obtained the ethical clearance from the university. Thereafter, the researcher approached the organisation’s Human Resource Development Controller (HRDC) who acted as the gatekeeper to obtain permission to interview the truck drivers. Once permission was obtained, the researcher was granted access to both the organisation’s premises and the truck drivers. The HRDC introduced the researcher and explained the researcher’s study and its purpose to the truck drivers. The gatekeeper also explained that participation in the study is voluntary. Because the researcher was not an employee at the said organisation, the researcher introduced herself before each interview and explained the objectives of the study, reassured the participants that their information would remain confidential and anonymity would be maintained and took them through the consent form to ensure that their participation was voluntary. The researcher was responsible for planning the entire study, which included interviewing the participants, taking notes during the interviews, and then transcribing the data. For the interviews, the researcher requested a private room to allow the participants to be free during the interview. The interviews were between the researcher and the individual interested participant.

Research participants and sampling methods

The researcher used a purposive sample method to collect rich data. According to Bryman (2016), purposive sampling is a technique that focuses on selecting participants who are relevant to the study based on characteristics that the researcher determined to answer the research questions. The sampling method that the researcher selected was not costly and did not take up much of the researcher’s time. As shown in Table 2, the study sampled 16 truck drivers. The sample size was dependent on how quickly the researcher reached data saturation. The study only included truck drivers from the identified organisation.

Data collection

The researcher employed face-to-face semi-structured interviews. These semi-structured interviews allowed the researcher to gather in-depth data from participants, which helped to understand the topic under investigation (Fouche et al., 2021). The researcher was able to ask follow-up questions if the questions were not answered comprehensively. Each interview lasted around 60 min or less, based on the participants’ responses.

Data recording

The researcher requested permission from each participant to record the interviews. The researcher used an electronic recorder, and the recordings were stored on the researcher’s laptop, which has a safe and secure password.

Strategies employed to ensure data quality

Anney’s (2014) four strategies were used to ensure quality data for this study:

• Credibility: The researcher ensured that the research results represented the participants’ opinions and described findings that matched the participants’ viewpoints. The researcher utilised peer debriefing by presenting the results to peers who verified that the researcher used the appropriate research methods to collect data.
• Transferability: The study provided thick descriptions of the research background, method, participants and themes to ensure that other individuals would comprehend the data and be able to use it in other contexts or settings.
• Dependability: The researcher adhered to the ethical research process and provided a detailed report consistent with the results that were uncovered. To strengthen dependability, the researcher requested expert researchers (supervisors) to conduct an audit trail of the transcriptions and the findings report to ensure that there was consistency.
• Confirmability: The researcher remained objective throughout the study and was not biased in any way. Confirmability was enhanced by requesting expert researchers to conduct cross-checking of the collected data and findings to ensure that the researcher was not biased when reporting on the findings.

Data analysis

The researcher utilised thematic analysis to identify, analyse, and report the information gathered from the interviews. The researcher used a computerised system called ATLAS.ti, which assisted in inductively identifying themes based on the lived experiences of the participants. The system enhanced the analysis and coding process as it was systematic and easy for the researcher to utilise. Braun and Clark’s six steps (2006) were used to analyse the data, as shown next:

• The researcher imported the transcribed verbatim data into ATLAS.ti and read through the transcripts to understand and familiarise herself with the data.
• The researcher inductively coded all the information that was gathered from the participants using ATLAS.ti to discover interesting themes.
• The researcher organised the various themes into potential themes on ATLAS.ti, and five themes were identified.
• The researcher reviewed the identified themes that were captured on ATLAS.ti to discover which themes needed to be removed, separated, or combined into one theme.
• The researcher identified what each theme represents and where the theme needed to be captured on ATLAS.ti.
• The researcher drafted a comprehensive report using the final themes that were captured on ATLAS.ti and substantiated the report by reviewing the literature.

Reporting style

Each participant was given a code name, and their direct quotations were organised according to themes and sub-themes identified during the data analysis process.

Ethical considerations

Ethical clearance to conduct this study was obtained from the University of Johannesburg Research Ethics Committee (Ref. No. IPPM-2024-904[M]). According to Struwig and Stead (2013), researchers must adhere to ethical procedures or protocols when conducting a research study. The researcher adhered to established research ethics to conduct this study. The researcher requested permission to conduct the study from the gatekeeper, as the researcher is not employed at the current organisation. In addition, the researcher explained the purpose of the study to the participants. The researcher did not deceive the participants but remained sincere throughout the study. A consent form was given to each participant, and it stated clearly that nobody was forced to participate in the study, as participation would be voluntary. The researcher also advised the participants that they had the right to withdraw from the study at any point of its duration if they no longer wished to participate.

Results

During the analysis, it was discovered that the identified themes were overlapping and interconnected. Three themes were identified along with their sub-themes: (1) occupational hazards, (2) psychological consequences, and (3) occupational outcomes. Therefore, the findings are presented to show how each theme is connected to the others with respect to OHS risks in the trucking industry.

Theme 1: Occupational hazards

Truck drivers face hazards because of the nature and scope of their work. They are exposed to accidents and crime while delivering products to different retail stores.

Sub-theme 1.1: Accidents

The above sub-theme became evident when the participants were asked if they had ever been involved in an accident. Eleven participants (69%) stated that they had been involved in an accident at least once, although in many instances these accidents did not involve any fatalities. Rather, the accidents were minor, when they were either knocked by a car or when they knocked another vehicle. Based on the participants’ responses, the most common cause of accidents involving trucks occurred owing to overtaking on the roads:

‘Yes, plenty of accidents. I was lost when I missed my location, and I had to make a U-turn, so the truck takes two lanes to turn, and I gave myself the space to turn. Unfortunately, the third party, the vehicle, never saw or predicted that I would make a U-turn. The car drove under the chase of the trailer (truck). I was not injured, as well as the person in the vehicle.’ (RP1)

‘And now you being held up by this guy that is driving 50 or 40 kilometres per hour. And now you get to a point where you now need to like, overtake, and that is where most accidents happen because of overtaking; that is one of the biggest things.’ (RP2)

‘I almost bumped a taxi driver because of how he just overtakes in front of me; I had to drive at the yellow line because it was going to take time for the truck to stop if I hit the brakes.’ (RP5)

‘We were stopping, and someone braked and hit the truck.’ (RP10)

Five participants (31%) stated that they had never been involved in an accident while working. A few of their comments in this regard are as follows:

‘No, I have never been involved in accident since I became a truck driver.’ (RP3)

‘I have never experienced an accident on the road.’ (RP6)

‘No accidents.’ (RP15)

Behavioural risk, arrogance, was identified as a risk that can cause accidents. Truck drivers reported that other road users are arrogant and refuse to give them the right of way, which can cause accidents. Four participants (25%) highlighted their experiences in this regard, as reflected:

‘And then, the other thing is also arrogance, you understand.’ (RP2)

‘People with small cars tend to underestimate a truck and its speed.’ (RP4)

‘Attitude of driver and forcing other road users to give free of way because of the mode you are using, not applying trucking knowledge on the road.’ (RP9)

‘Something like when other drivers do not drive with patience, and when there are power failures, everyone is forcing right of way then we end up colliding.’ (RP16)

Sub-theme 1.2: Exposure to criminal activities

The above sub-theme emerged when the participants expressed that they are exposed to criminal activities during their travels. Fourteen participants (88%) mentioned that they had experienced theft, hijacking and truck attacks while working. The perpetrators would steal their personal items from the truck while the drivers were busy offloading or at a fuel station while taking a bathroom break. Furthermore, these perpetrators steal diesel, cables, and tyres from the trucks. Some of the truck drivers shared hijacking and near-hijacking encounters. They claimed that chances of being hijacked were higher at night, and when they transported valuable goods. Below are participant responses around criminal activities that they experienced:

‘At the garage even though it is not safe at times because they steal cables and diesel.’ (RP6)

‘Yes, they once stole my phone and wallet from the truck; I was at a shop in Eldos. Those guys were very naughty.’ (RP8)

‘They once tried to hijack me; a car passed me, and it started to slack after I passed it; they started driving by my side and tried to show me something that was at the back of my truck, but I did not stop because it was suspicious.’ (RP4)

‘Yes, I have; they took stock that I had but they did nothing to us. So, they took everything and left us. We were delivering and I had valuable goods so when we were offloading then they could see the things we have; then, at the stop sign, they blocked us and took everything.’ (RP13)

‘Eish, I cannot say much because it has reasons, especially people that are not happy with the government and foreigners take our jobs, so it is the source of our problems and causes truck attacks.’ (RP16)

One participant stated that criminal activities such as truck attacks are caused by truck drivers who are not happy with their supervisors:

‘Sometimes trucks are burned by other truck drivers because they are not happy or because they do not get along with their supervisors.’ (RP4)

Two participants (12%) mentioned that they had never experienced any criminal activities while working:

‘The roads are safe. I have never been involved in a situation where I was in danger.’ (RP14)

‘No, I have never been attacked or hijacked.’ (RP12)

Theme 2: Psychological consequences

The hazards that truck drivers are exposed to lead to mental strain, and, in turn, the working conditions of trucks can affect drivers’ overall well-being.

Sub-theme 2.1: A risk of physical and mental strain

The above sub-theme was generated when participants discussed the impact that their working conditions have on their physical and mental health. Twelve participants (75%) revealed that the job has affected their overall health. Because most of the participants had never been involved in road accidents, the researcher asked them how they thought accidents affected truck drivers. They said that accidents affected drivers’ mental state. In addition, the participants mentioned that they have back problems owing to driving long hours, eyesight problems because of driving at night, and headaches caused by fatigue. Their responses in this regard are expressed next:

‘An accident can get you in a mental state where you decide that I am not doing this anymore.’ (RP2)

‘Maybe fear instilled by the incident.’ (RP9)

‘Fatigue will give you headaches and your body becomes painful.’ (RP15)

‘Yes, you have backpains and you have eyesight problems because of travelling at night and you also become lazy.’ (RP4)

Three participants also shared that obesity is a problem among truck drivers because of the foods that they eat while working:

‘You also become fat because most of the people here they come in as slender and as time goes by, they become obese.’ (RP4)

‘Causes obesity because of junk food.’ (RP4)

When probed about any health concerns that they may be experiencing owing to their job, four of the participants (25%) said that they do not have any health concerns currently, as indicated below:

‘Nothing, I feel healthy.’ (RP6)

‘Nothing; at the current moment, I am okay.’ (RP13)

Theme 3: Occupational outcomes

Occupational hazards and psychological consequences lead to outcomes that threaten truck drivers’ job security.

Sub-theme 3.1: Loss of employment because of incapacity or dismissal

The participants shared similar sentiments in terms of the effects of being involved in an accident. Nine (56%) of them said that accident implications could involve them being physically disabled or medically unfit to drive, which would lead to them losing their jobs. In addition, participants mentioned that they could be dismissed if it was found that the accident was their fault:

‘You can be dismissed from work if you are found to be wrong.’ (RP5)

‘You can find that after an accident, you can no longer work because you are crippled.’ (RP15)

‘Where a guy was off boarded because of accident of head-on collision, after the accident he was not able to drive anymore due to disability and had to sit home.’ (RP1)

‘It has huge impact because sometimes you can get dismissed at work and sometimes you get hurt to an extent that you cannot continue driving.’ (RP7)

Discussion

The purpose of the study was to provide insights into OHS concerns that truck drivers encounter as part of their role. Three interconnected themes were identified that relate to the research question.

The first sub-theme was the risk of occupational hazards. The participants indicated that they experienced accidents, even when not always directly involved. Accidents were ascribed to human error, especially because of a lack of vigilance, overtaking and unsafe behaviours. This is in line with the literature, which revealed that overtaking along sharp curves and uneven roads may lead to fatal accidents (Dotse et al., 2019). Gray (2019) concurs, stating that people who drive cars often want to match the speed of a truck by overtaking it. This unsafe act may lead to accidents as it takes longer for a truck to brake. The findings suggest that the working hours of truck drivers are exhausting, as the trucking industry is known for drivers working more hours than other professions and not adhering to the maximum working hours, which can cause them to become drowsy at the wheel and endanger their safety and that of others on the road. Working longer hours and failing to comply with rest periods has a detrimental effect on the safety of drivers, as they are vulnerable to accidents because of exhaustion. There is currently a gap in the pluralist approach as trade unions are not effectively negotiating for better working conditions with the employers, which ultimately affects the safety of the truck drivers as they are involved in accidents.

The second risk, which is the second sub-theme identified, is exposure to criminal activities. The sub-theme emerged when the participants expressed that they are exposed to criminal activities during their travel journeys. The study’s participants indicated that they are also exposed to criminal activities when using South Africa’s extensive roads. These criminal activities include hijackings, as well as theft of personal belongings and cargo theft. The perpetrators may also steal fuel, cables, and tyres from the truck. Criminal activities that truck drivers experience are overlooked, while there is limited research in South Africa that focuses on this aspect. The findings indicate that crime is a social issue in South Africa that affects professional drivers who make ends meet. This suggests that the trucking industry needs to include driver safety in the OHS policies and indicate how it aims to protect drivers when travelling, as most organisations focus on employee safety only within the premises of the organisation. According to Mlepo (2022), South Africa’s transport sector is currently experiencing a major challenge when it comes to the criminal activities that they are subjected to while in transit, which can include stealing, hijacking, and arson, resulting in fatalities and theft of stock. In fact, according to Kubanova and Kubasakova (2022), cargo theft is a global problem that affects many countries. South Africa is not the only country that has to deal with this pressing issue; countries such as Italy, Europe, Russia, and France have also experienced an increase in cargo theft (Ekwall & Lantz, 2018).

The participants also mentioned that they do not feel safe at fuel stations where they take rest breaks because of criminal activities that often occur there. Ruettger et al.’s (2025) study found that truck drivers perceived resting areas to be unsafe owing to the potential theft of fuel and loads; hence, they would rather choose to stay in the trucks and not leave them to buy food or snacks. The crime incidents at truck stops and fuel stations indicate a high need to increase the number of truck stops designated for trucks, which must have the necessary security to ensure that the drivers are safe during their rest breaks. Furthermore, during the said study’s interviews, the participants revealed that socio-economic issues and employing immigrant workers have an influence on the truck attacks that take place in South Africa. Mlepo (2022) concurs, arguing that income inequalities, unemployment, and employing immigrants as truck drivers are the causes of the recurring truck attacks. It is claimed that immigrant workers who are willing to accept low-paying jobs, in spite of accompanying poor working conditions, are taking job opportunities that would ordinarily be reserved for South African citizens (Mlepo, 2022). This demonstrates that many organisations in South Africa are not complying with the Basic Conditions of Employment Act (BCEA) No.75 of 1997 and the Immigration Act 13 of 2002, which means that adherence to laws that govern the workplace is not being followed or monitored by the government. There is a strong need for the government to assign Labour Inspectors to visit trucking companies to ensure compliance with South Africa’s labour laws. Conceptually, this questions the role that trade unions play in the organisation, as they are responsible for ensuring that the employer adheres to the collective agreement from the pluralist approach, as they need to ensure fair working conditions for the truck drivers. The above study’s participants also alluded to the fact that truck attacks are sometimes caused by truck drivers who are not happy with their managers. Indeed, the findings of Pritchard et al. (2023) substantiate this result, as the truck drivers revealed that their supervisors do not respect them, while they are also often demeaned and subjected to racism. It can be argued that the truck drivers engaged in destructive behaviours based on their experiences with their managers, leading to them burning the trucks as a form of retaliation. Therefore, the working conditions of truck drivers expose the drivers to social issues that are taking place in South Africa, which can lead to drivers experiencing mental strain because of the ordeals they encounter.

Adlard (2017) found that hijacking causes post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and fears of driving in certain areas or at night. Similarly, this study found that accidents can affect truck drivers, especially if they have been involved in any, as these instil fear of driving again and/or related anxiety. According to Crizzle et al. (2017), truck drivers are exposed to PTSD owing to road accidents in which they may have been involved and the hostility that exists in the trucking industry. Trajchevska and Jones (2025) claim that truck drivers who have suffered major injuries because of road traffic accidents are more likely to develop depression, anxiety, and PTSD, while even those who experience minor accidents can display PTSD symptoms. Moreover, Garbarino et al. (2016) suggest that depression can lead to poor concentration and not being able to make cautious decisions when driving on the roads, which can cause accidents that may result in death or serious injuries. Therefore, it can be argued that there is no guarantee for the OHS of truck drivers owing to the industry’s working conditions.

The third risk, and which is the third sub-theme identified, was the risk of physiological strain. Truck drivers’ working conditions affect their OHS. This study revealed that truck drivers experience bodily discomforts such as back and shoulder pain owing to them being sedentary for long hours at a time, while their vision also becomes affected. Furthermore, the study found that obesity also affects truck drivers, as they do not eat healthy food; instead, they eat a lot of junk or fast foods while travelling. The findings of Sousa and Ramos’ (2018) study align with the results of this study, as they reported that truck drivers are exposed to physical strains such as painful backs and knees. Sousa and Ramos (2018) also mention that after some time, truck drivers’ vision becomes strained, as they struggle to adapt to night driving compared to driving during the day. Concurring, Combs et al.’s (2018) study states that truck drivers experience physical strains such as painful backs and necks, as they drive for long periods. The physical strain of sitting in an awkward position can cause impairments to the bones, ligaments, and soft tissues that can result in serious health issues such as tumours, spinal degeneration, and sciatica (Nazerian et al., 2018).

Another concerning health issue that the participants raised in this study is obesity, which truck drivers believed was caused by their occupation owing to the unhealthy foods that they consume. In a study conducted by Modjadji et al. (2022) in South Africa, the prevalence of obesity among truck drivers was found to be 74%. The tendency of truck drivers to be overweight is caused by not having access to healthy food options at truck stops and rest areas (Yosef et al., 2020). In addition, restricted and limited movement, caused by long working hours and sedentary conditions, contributes to obesity (Boeijinga et al., 2016).

A risk associated with accidents and psychological issues, which emerged as the last sub-theme, is loss of employment, either because of incapacity as a result of injuries or dismissal as a result of transgression of road rules and perceived irresponsibility. The latter is an aspect that is currently under-researched. However, while the findings of Karimi Moonaghi et al. (2015) indicate that truck drivers would not be able to work should their trucks be involved in an accident, the study does not explain the reasons why they would not be able to work. The occupational hazards and psychological issues are closely linked to the loss of employment because once a driver is involved in an accident, it can cause permanent or temporary injuries and can also instil fear or anxiety in truck drivers, and this affects job security because a truck driver has to be medically fit to operate a truck.

Overall, the findings indicate that OHS risks in the trucking sector can lead to interconnected hazards, consequences, and outcomes. Occupational risks emerge from the working conditions imposed on truck drivers and require organisations and trade unions to align to improve working conditions. This also requires government intervention, as they are the highest authority that can enforce labour laws, and this would strengthen the pluralist relationship. Organisations need to understand how working conditions can pose many risks to drivers and how this can potentially also affect their jobs. The longer hours without rest breaks and prioritising deliveries cause fatigue, which can ultimately lead to accidents as their vigilance decreases. Accidents can cause permanent injuries and mental illnesses, as such events can be traumatic and affect the employability of a driver, as the profession requires a fit individual.

Occupational Health and Safety Act No. 85 of 1993 aims to protect the health and safety of workers in relation to work that they conduct in the workplace. The OHSA No. 85 of 1993 provides employers with guidelines to ensure employee safety in the workplace. The regulation stipulates that the employer must provide a suitable, safe working environment for employees so that they can perform their duties. The OHSA No. 85 of 1993 also states that employers must conduct risk assessments to identify risks associated with tasks performed, while they should develop plans to mitigate or eliminate hazards that may pose risks to employees. An important question that relates to road safety is whether the OHSA No. 85 of 1993 is appropriate for work-related driving in the trucking industry.

Limitations and recommendations

The sample size of this study was limited to 16 participants. Therefore, the results cannot be generalised to other truck drivers in South Africa. A longitudinal study may be conducted over a 2–3-year period to assess whether the identified OHS risks of South African truck drivers still exist in the trucking industry. Future research could explore the consequences of these OHS risks for truck drivers in a broader manner to understand how these affect the livelihoods of truck drivers.

Practical implications

This underscores the importance of the pluralist approach to be applied consistently in the transport sector. Trade unions need to become an effective mechanism that raises truck drivers’ concerns with employers to improve working conditions. Occupational health and safety practitioners and trucking industries should ensure that their risks assessment also caters for the hazards that truck drivers experience while travelling on the roads, as truck drivers are mobile workers that are mostly affected by external factors that stem from their working conditions. These working conditions should be examined to ensure that the role involves minimal risks.

Conclusion

The study’s objective was to identify and understand the OHS risks that truck drivers face in South Africa. Truck drivers who work at the identified organisation were interviewed to achieve this objective. This study identified the OHS hazards of some truck drivers in South Africa. Generally, they are exposed to different hazards and risks within their roles, caused by their working conditions. Therefore, there is a great need for trucking companies to review their OHS policies to cover the travelling of truck drivers and for the government to assess whether the OHSA No. 85 of 1993 is efficient for the trucking industry based on their scope of work.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank all the participants who provided valuable insights for this study. In addition, the authors would like to thank Shamila Sulayman for her language editing services.

This article is based on research originally conducted as part of Agisanang Tsheola’s dissertation titled ‘Exploring the occupational health and safety risks of truck drivers in the South African context’, submitted towards the degree of Master of Commerce in Employment Relations at the University of Johannesburg in 2026. The dissertation is currently unpublished and not publicly available. The dissertation was supervised by Masase E. Mageza-Mokhethi and Jeremy Mitonga-Monga. The dissertation was reworked, revised and adapted into a journal article for publication. The authors confirm that the content has not been previously published or disseminated and complies with ethical standards for original publication.

During the preparation of this work, the authors used ATLAS.ti 2025 for data analysis in terms of coding of themes. The content was reviewed and edited by the authors, who take full responsibility for its accuracy.

The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.

Agisanang Tsheola: Conceptualisation, Data curation, Formal analysis, Investigation, Methodology, Project administration, Writing – original draft. Masase E. Mageza-Mokhethi: Conceptualisation, Supervision, Validation, Writing – review & editing. Jeremy Mitonga-Monga: Conceptualisation, Supervision, Validation, Writing – review & editing. All authors reviewed the article, contributed to the discussion of results, approved the final version for submission and publication, and take responsibility for the integrity of its findings.

The authors received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

The data that supports the findings of this study are available from the corresponding author, Masase E. Mageza-Mokhethi, upon reasonable request and subjected to research ethic standards.

The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the authors and are the product of professional research. They do not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency, or that of the publisher. The authors are responsible for this article’s results, findings, and content.

References