Employee experience has increasingly been conceptualised as a cumulative and relational evaluation emerging from employees’ ongoing interactions with organisational systems, managerial practices and work environments. Ulrich and Dulebohn (2015) argue that the evolution of human resource management (HRM) towards a strategic orientation has shifted scholarly attention from discrete HR practices to the holistic quality of employees’ lived experiences. Morgan (2017) and Plaskoff (2017) further conceptualise EX as a multidimensional phenomenon shaped by structural, technological and cultural elements that collectively influencehow employees interpret their relationship with the organisation over time. Unlike traditional attitudinal measures, EX integrates affective, cognitive and relational dimensions, capturing how employees interpret their employment relationship holistically (Başar, 2024; Seo, 2025).

Despite growing attention to its antecedents, less research has explained the psychological mechanism through which organisational practices and work stress are translated into experiential outcomes, particularly in highly formalised heavy-industry SOEs. In such contexts, institutionalised governance structures, formalised HR systems and hierarchical authority patterns may weaken relational signals embedded in everyday practices (Horváth & Kenesei, 2023; Saputra et al., 2023). Employees do not respond directly to structural arrangements; rather, they interpret organisational signals before forming evaluative judgements.

To explain this interpretive process, the present study adopts a hybrid framework integrating Social Exchange Theory (Blau, 1964; Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2005) and Organisational Support Theory (Eisenberger et al., 1986; Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002). Social exchange theory posits that employment relationships are governed by reciprocal exchanges in which organisational actions generate employee responses based on perceived obligations and relational expectations. Organisational support theory further suggests that employees personify the organisation and develop generalised beliefs regarding whether it values their contributions and cares about their well-being. These beliefs, captured as POS, emerge through repeated interpretation of organisational treatment and function as a psychological filter through which organisational practices and stress conditions are evaluated (Hassanein et al., 2025; Nugraha & Kharismasyah, 2024; Seo, 2025). Meta-analytic evidence confirms the central mediating role of POS between HR practices and employee outcomes (Kurtessis et al., 2017). Accordingly, organisational practices and work stress are conceptualised as key antecedents shaping EX through POS.

In heavy industry contexts characterised by safety risks and operational intensity, working conditions and welfare provisions constitute foundational organisational practices. Morgan (2017) and Plaskoff (2017) highlight the importance of the physical and material work environment in shaping EX. However, from a social exchange perspective, such provisions operate as exchange signals. When employees perceive safety investments and welfare benefits as discretionary organisational care rather than mere regulatory compliance, they infer supportive intent (Eisenberger et al., 1986). Conversely, when these provisions are interpreted as minimal compliance obligations, their relational value diminishes (Başar, 2024; Horváth & Kenesei, 2023). In highly institutionalised SOEs, this distinction becomes critical, as employees may attribute provisions either to genuine organisational concern or to bureaucratic necessity:

Communication, feedback and recognition represent relational exchange mechanisms embedded in daily supervisory interactions. Relational practices such as communication and recognition shape employees’ perceptions of respect and inclusion (Reis et al., 2021). Feedback carries symbolic meaning beyond informational content, and from a social exchange perspective, timely and constructive feedback signals appreciation, respect and relational investment (Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2005). Employees evaluate not only the content of communication, but also its sincerity and fairness (Saputra et al., 2023). In hierarchical SOEs, communication may be procedural and top-down, increasing the likelihood that managerial actions are perceived as impersonal (Saputra et al., 2023). Empirical research indicates that fair and transparent communication enhances POS (Qiu & Dooley, 2022), while recognition practices that reflect genuine appreciation rather than symbolic compliance reinforce social exchange norms (Başar, 2024; Kim & Beehr, 2020):

Career development opportunities signal long-term relational commitment and indicate whether employees are viewed as valuable organisational assets. Transparent promotion systems and structured training initiatives communicate investment in employees’ future contributions (Lee & Kim, 2023). Under Organisational Support Theory, discretionary developmental support enhances employees’ belief that the organisation values their future potential (Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002), while Social Exchange Theory suggests that such investment strengthens reciprocity norms (Blau, 1964). Research shows that HR development practices enhance POS when attributed to genuine organisational care (Jehanzeb, 2020; Winarno et al., 2022). In state-owned heavy industry enterprises, where advancement pathways may be rigid (Horváth & Kenesei, 2023), accessible development opportunities reinforce POS (Başar, 2024; Saputra et al., 2023):

Work stress is a salient feature of heavy industry environments characterised by production pressure, safety requirements and operational intensity (Redzuan et al., 2023). Sustained work stress depletes psychological resources and undermines employee well-being (Hobfoll & Hou, 2025), while cognitive appraisal theory suggests that employees interpret stressors before forming affective reactions (Jiang & Lavaysse, 2018). Unlike supportive resources, work stress may operate as a negative exchange signal. When excessive demands are experienced without adequate support, relational imbalance emerges, weakening reciprocity norms (Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2005). If work stress is attributed to organisational indifference rather than situational necessity, POS declines (Eisenberger et al., 1986; Rhoades & Eisenberger, 2002). Empirical research links stress exposure to reduced attachment and experiential satisfaction (Pindek et al., 2024; Podsakoff et al., 2007). Beyond its indirect effect through POS, persistent work stress may consolidate into negative experiential appraisals over time (Başar, 2024; Lee & Kim, 2023; Saputra et al., 2023):

Perceived organisational support functions as the central mediating mechanism translating structural exchange signals into experiential outcomes. Perceived organisational support represents employees’ generalised belief that the organisation values their contributions and cares about their well-being (Eisenberger et al., 1986). Through repeated organisational interactions, employees consolidate interpretations of organisational intent into stable relational judgements (Hassanein et al., 2025; Nugraha & Kharismasyah, 2024). These beliefs shape long-term experiential evaluations of organisational life (Başar, 2024; Lee & Kim, 2023). Empirical evidence demonstrates that POS enhances engagement, satisfaction and experiential evaluation (Khliefat et al., 2025; Pan et al., 2025). When employees perceive strong organisational support, they interpret daily work events more positively and integrate them into favourable cumulative experiences. Conversely, low perceived support weakens relational attachment and contributes to negative experiential outcomes. In formalised SOEs, POS functions as a relational bridge translating procedural systems into meaningful experience (Hassanein et al., 2025):

Within a resource interpretation and exchange framework, organisational practices and work stress are unlikely to influence EX directly without first being interpreted as supportive (Morgan, 2017; Saputra et al., 2023). Organisational practices, policies and structural provisions function as relational signals rather than neutral administrative arrangements. Employees cognitively evaluate whether these practices reflect genuine concern or procedural compliance before forming experiential judgements (Jehanzeb, 2020). Social Exchange Theory suggests that only when such practices are perceived as discretionary expressions of organisational care do they activate reciprocity norms and strengthen relational bonds (Cropanzano & Mitchell, 2005). If resources are interpreted as routine obligations, their relational value diminishes and reciprocal responses weaken. Meta-analytic evidence confirms the mediating role of POS between HR practices and employee outcomes (Kurtessis et al., 2017). Furthermore, recent research highlights that POS operates as a sensemaking filter translating HR signals into attitudinal and experiential consequences (Winarno et al., 2022). In institutionalised SOEs, where bureaucratic formalisation may obscure relational intent, structural arrangements alone are insufficient to generate positive EX unless interpreted through supportive relational signals:

Organisational culture represents the broader normative environment within which exchange relationships unfold. It provides the interpretive climate-shaping of how POS is understood and translated into EX (Vu & Le, 2025). Shared norms of fairness, collaboration and psychological safety reinforce relational trust and stabilise expectations of reciprocity (Edmondson & Bransby, 2023). In supportive cultures characterised by fairness and collaboration, the relational meaning attached to organisational support becomes stronger, thereby amplifying the positive effect of POS on EX (Horváth & Kenesei, 2023; Saputra et al., 2023). Research further indicates that strong organisational cultures enhance social exchange mechanisms by embedding consistent relational signals in everyday practices (Denison et al., 2014; Mossholder et al., 2011). Conversely, bureaucratic or compliance-driven cultures may weaken this translation process by reducing trust and diluting relational interpretations. Organisational culture therefore conditions the strength of the POS, EX relationship. Rather than directly influencing POS, organisational culture is conceptualised as a contextual boundary condition that shapes the extent to which supportive perceptions translate into experiential outcomes:

The proposed conceptual model is presented in Figure 1.

The target population comprised employees working in large heavy-industry SOEs operating in Vietnam. Because no centralised employee database was available, purposive sampling was adopted. Respondents were required to have at least 6 months of tenure to ensure that their responses reflected accumulated work experience.

Data were collected between July 2025 and September 2025. A total of 600 questionnaires were distributed using both paper-based and online formats. After screening for incomplete responses and response patterns indicating straight-lining, 403 valid questionnaires were retained for analysis, representing a response rate of 67.2%. This sample size satisfies the recommended threshold for PLS-SEM analysis (Hair et al., 2019). The demographic characteristics of respondents are presented in Table 1.

All constructs were measured using multi-item reflective scales adapted from established studies. Items were rated on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The full measurement items are provided in Appendix 1 Table 1-A1.

Organisational practices were operationalised through three dimensions: working conditions and welfare (Morgan, 2017; Plaskoff, 2017), communication and recognition (Albrecht et al., 2015; Plaskoff, 2017) and career development (De Vos et al., 2011; Morgan, 2017). Work stress was measured using items adapted from Başar (2024) and Useche et al. (2021). Perceived organisational support was assessed using items adapted from Eisenberger et al. (1986) and Nguyen et al. (2024). Employee experience was measured using items adapted from Morgan (2017), Plaskoff (2017) and Yang and Zhang (2025). Organisational culture was measured using items adapted from Morgan (2017), Plaskoff (2017) and Schein and Schein (2017).

The questionnaire was pilot-tested with 20 employees prior to the main survey. Data were analysed using SmartPLS 4 following a two-step procedure. The measurement model was assessed for reliability and validity, and the structural model was evaluated using bootstrapping (5000 resamples) to test direct, mediating and moderating effects.

Ethical clearance to conduct this study was obtained from Vietnam Trade Union University (Reference number: VTUU-REC-2026-01). The research complied with the institutional guidelines governing social science research and internationally recognised ethical standards for research involving human participants. Participation in the study was entirely voluntary. Respondents were informed about the purpose of the research and the academic use of the data, and completion of the questionnaire was taken as informed consent. No personally identifiable information was collected, and all responses were recorded anonymously. All data were securely stored and used solely for academic research purposes.

The measurement model was evaluated using PLS-SEM following recommended procedures (Hair et al., 2019). Indicator reliability, internal consistency reliability, convergent validity, discriminant validity and collinearity were assessed prior to examining the structural relationships.

All outer loadings exceeded the recommended threshold of 0.708, ranging from 0.841 to 0.895, indicating satisfactory indicator reliability. Internal consistency reliability was supported, with Cronbach’s alpha values between 0.873 and 0.908 and composite reliability (CR) values ranging from 0.913 to 0.936, all above the 0.70 criterion.

Convergent validity was confirmed as average variance extracted (AVE) values ranged from 0.724 to 0.784, exceeding the minimum requirement of 0.50. Discriminant validity was assessed using the heterotrait–monotrait (HTMT) ratio. All HTMT values were below the conservative threshold of 0.85, with the highest value (0.664) observed between POS and EX, indicating that the constructs are empirically distinct.

Collinearity diagnostics showed no multicollinearity concerns. All inner model variance inflation factor (VIF) values were below 3.3, and outer model VIF values were within acceptable limits. Model fit was satisfactory, with standardised root mean squared residual (SRMR) values of 0.040 (saturated model) and 0.051 (estimated model).

Table 2 summarises the measurement model results. Overall, the measurement model demonstrated adequate reliability and validity, supporting further evaluation of the structural model.

The structural model was evaluated by examining path coefficients, coefficients of determination (R²), predictive relevance (Q²), effect sizes (f²), as well as mediation and moderation effects using bootstrapping with 5000 resamples. The descriptive statistics and correlation results are presented in Table 3.

The model explains 48.6% of the variance in POS (R² = 0.486) and 43.9% of the variance in EX (R² = 0.439), indicating moderate explanatory power. Predictive relevance was confirmed as Q² values were 0.345 for POS and 0.313 for EX, both exceeding zero.

Career development (β = 0.382, p < 0.001), communication and recognition (β = 0.278, p < 0.001) and working conditions and welfare (β = 0.227, p < 0.001) positively influence POS. Work stress negatively affects POS (β = −0.136, p < 0.001). Perceived organisational support has a strong positive effect on EX (β = 0.452, p < 0.001), representing the largest direct effect in the model. Work stress also exerts a direct negative effect on EX (β = −0.287, p < 0.001), indicating that stress influences EX both directly and indirectly (Figure 2).

Bootstrapping results confirm that POS mediates the relationships between organisational practices, work stress and EX. Significant indirect effects were observed for career development (β = 0.173, p < 0.001), communication (β = 0.126, p < 0.001), working conditions and welfare (β = 0.103, p < 0.001) and work stress (β = −0.061, p < 0.001). Because both the direct paths (e.g. work stress → EX) and indirect paths remain significant, the results indicate partial mediation rather than full mediation.

The interaction term between POS and organisational culture (POS × OC → EX) is significant (β = 0.109, p = 0.010). This positive interaction coefficient indicates that organisational culture strengthens the positive relationship between POS and EX. In organisations characterised by stronger relational and fairness-oriented cultures, the beneficial impact of POS on EX becomes more pronounced.

Among organisational practices, career development emerged as the most influential predictor of POS. This result corroborates Organisational Support Theory’s argument that discretionary investment in employees’ long-term growth constitutes a strong signal of organisational valuation. It also aligns with empirical evidence linking developmental HR practices to enhanced support perceptions (Jehanzeb, 2020; Winarno et al., 2022). However, its magnitude requires contextual interpretation. In heavy-industry SOEs, career progression is often perceived as rigid or tenure-bound. Under such institutional constraints, visible developmental initiatives may acquire heightened symbolic importance, signalling organisational commitment beyond routine administrative processes. The findings therefore refine existing research by suggesting that the salience of career development as a support signal may be amplified where advancement opportunities are structurally limited.

Communication and recognition also positively predicted POS, reinforcing Social Exchange Theory’s emphasis on daily interpersonal interactions as carriers of relational meaning. Because communication practices are enacted through supervisors, they convey direct evidence of organisational concern. In hierarchical SOEs, where communication may be procedural or compliance-oriented, transparent and appreciative feedback assumes particular importance. The results indicate that employees infer organisational intent less from formal policy existence and more from enacted managerial behaviour.

Working conditions and welfare further contributed to POS, consistent with EX frameworks that recognise the importance of material and physical environments. However, the comparatively moderate magnitude of this effect suggests that such provisions may be interpreted as baseline obligations in heavily regulated industrial contexts. When safety standards and welfare systems are perceived as compliance-driven rather than discretionary, their relational impact weakens. The findings therefore nuance prior research by demonstrating that material provisions influence support perceptions most strongly when employees attribute them to genuine organisational care.

Work stress negatively affected both POS and EX, revealing a dual-path influence. The negative association with POS supports the argument that excessive demands signal relational imbalance when not matched by adequate resources. Under Social Exchange Theory, perceived inequity in exchange weakens supportive beliefs. At the same time, the direct negative impact of stress on EX indicates that chronic overload and operational strain accumulate into global experiential evaluations independently of relational interpretation. This pattern of partial mediation suggests that supportive perceptions may buffer, but cannot fully offset, the experiential consequences of sustained demands. In heavy-industry SOEs, where production pressures and safety compliance are structurally embedded, stress may be perceived as systemic, reinforcing its experiential impact.

The mediation results confirm that POS serves as the principal mechanism through which organisational practices influence EX. This finding extends prior meta-analytic evidence on POS as a mediator between HR practices and attitudinal outcomes (Kurtessis et al., 2017) by demonstrating its explanatory relevance for EX, a broader and more cumulative construct. By establishing POS as the interpretive bridge between practices and experience, the study advances EX research beyond descriptive accounts of workplace design. Organisational inputs become experientially meaningful only when translated into supportive beliefs. This mechanism-based explanation provides theoretical precision and strengthens the integration of EX scholarship with established exchange frameworks.

The partial mediation observed for work stress further contributes to theory by illustrating that not all organisational influences are fully captured through relational interpretation. Certain experiential consequences, particularly those rooted in psychological strain, may operate independently of support beliefs.

The moderating effect of organisational culture on the POS and EX relationship introduces an important contextual dimension. The positive interaction indicates that in environments characterised by fairness and collaboration, the beneficial impact of perceived support on EX is amplified.

This finding aligns with cultural theories that conceptualise organisational culture as a climate-shaping mechanism influencing interpretation and behavioural translation (Denison et al., 2014; Mossholder et al., 2011). Culture provides consistency across organisational signals; when relational norms are embedded in routines, supportive perceptions gain credibility and stability. Consequently, perceived support more readily transforms into sustained experiential positivity. Notably, organisational culture did not exert a direct effect on EX. This absence refines cultural arguments by suggesting that culture operates less as an independent experiential driver and more as a boundary condition shaping the strength of exchange processes. In highly formalised SOEs, culture may not override structural constraints directly, but it influences how employees interpret and internalise supportive signals.

This study advances theoretical understanding of EX by articulating and empirically validating an exchange-based mechanism grounded in Social Exchange Theory and Organisational Support Theory. Rather than treating EX as a direct outcome of organisational practices, the findings demonstrate that it is constructed through employees’ interpretive beliefs about organisational support. By positioning POS as the central mediating conduit linking organisational practices and work stress to EX, the study strengthens the integration between EX scholarship and established exchange frameworks in organisational behaviour.

The results also extend Organisational Support Theory by broadening the explanatory scope of POS beyond traditional outcomes such as commitment, engagement or performance. The evidence that POS shapes cumulative experiential evaluations suggests that support perceptions play a foundational role in structuring how employees globally appraise organisational life over time. In this sense, POS functions not merely as an attitudinal predictor but as a core determinant of holistic work experience.

Incorporating work stress alongside organisational practices further enriches theory by integrating demand-based and exchange-based explanations within a unified model. The identification of both direct and indirect stress effects indicates that EX deteriorates through weakened relational beliefs as well as sustained psychological strain. Moreover, the moderating role of organisational culture refines cultural perspectives by demonstrating that culture acts as a boundary condition that amplifies the translation of perceived support into experience, rather than as a standalone predictor. Finally, by focusing on heavy-industry SOEs in Vietnam, the study contributes context-sensitive evidence illustrating how institutional rigidity shapes the interpretation of organisational resources.

Accordingly, the contribution of the study lies less in proposing a new construct than in offering a coherent, contextually rich integration of EX, POS, work stress and organisational culture in a heavy-industry SOE setting.

The findings suggest that improving EX in heavy-industry SOEs requires attention to relational meaning rather than structural design alone. Formal HR systems and welfare provisions do not automatically generate positive experience; their impact depends on whether employees interpret them as genuine expressions of organisational care. Managerial emphasis should therefore shift from policy existence to policy enactment, ensuring that organisational practices consistently communicate credible relational intent.

Career development emerges as a particularly powerful lever in rigid institutional contexts. Visible investment in skill development and transparent progression pathways signal long-term organisational commitment, thereby strengthening supportive beliefs. Similarly, communication and recognition practices require strong managerial capability, as supervisors function as key interpreters of organisational intent in hierarchical environments.

The findings also underscore the importance of proactive stress management. Because work stress directly and indirectly undermines EX, workload regulation, adequate staffing and supportive coping resources are essential. Finally, cultivating a fairness-oriented and collaborative culture can amplify the experiential benefits of perceived support by reinforcing relational consistency across organisational levels. When supportive practices are embedded within a credible cultural climate, employees are more likely to translate perceived care into a sustained positive experience.

For HRM in African, South African and broader Global South public-sector contexts, the findings suggest that formally available HR practices need to be enacted as credible support signals rather than treated merely as compliance routines. Public sector and SOE managers can therefore use career development, fair communication and stress management as practical levers for converting institutionalised HR systems into more positive EX.

Several considerations delimit the scope of this study. The cross-sectional design prevents strong causal inference and does not capture how EX evolves through organisational change or career progression. Future longitudinal research could examine whether support perceptions fluctuate in response to policy reform, restructuring, or economic cycles in SOEs.

The reliance on perceptual measures may also constrain the objectivity of the findings. Although statistical diagnostics indicated acceptable model validity, future studies could integrate supervisor ratings, archival HR data or multi-wave designs to strengthen causal interpretation.

In addition, the institutional specificity of heavy-industry SOEs in Vietnam may shape the salience of developmental signals and the buffering role of culture. Comparative investigations across private firms, service sectors or different national governance systems would help clarify the contextual boundaries of the proposed mechanism.

Future research may further explore alternative moderators or mediators such as leadership style, psychological safety, or perceived procedural justice to deepen understanding of how organisational signals are interpreted and consolidated into enduring EX.