Globally, women have become an essential part of the mining workforce. Among other jobs, they fulfil management positions, operate heavy machinery and are involved in artisanal mining processes. In South Africa, new mining legislation not only prohibits the exclusion of women but requires from companies to actively change the demographic profile of their workforce. Mining companies are obliged to also employ women in core mining activities. Although well intended, women appointed in core positions work side by side with men, often in isolation, and are frequently at risk of sexual abuse and/or harassment.
This research determined perceptions regarding the occurrence of sexual harassment among women working in core mining positions.
Currently, there is a paucity of published data on the occurrence of sexual harassment in the mining industry.
A mixed-method research design was used including quantitative and qualitative research paradigms. Quantitative data were collected by means of a structured questionnaire. Qualitative data were collected by means of individual and group interviews.
From the literature review and the empirical findings, it is evident that women are still exploited and sexually harassed in the mining industry. Incidents taking place on a daily basis vary from whistling; name calling; use of vulgar or derogatory language; display of body parts; physical contact, ranging from touching to sexual assault and rape; to the exchange of sexual favours for promotion.
It is evident from the research that a holistic approach is required to effectively eradicate sexual harassment in the mining industry, involving the commitment of relevant state departments, human resource managers and labour experts.
Practical recommendations are made to effectively address sexual harassment in the mining industry.
Although few in numbers, women have now globally become an essential part of the mining workforce, mainly because of equal opportunity legislation, which obliged mining companies to actively change the demographic profile of their workforce. Currently, women miners play various roles in mining; they fulfil management positions, operate heavy machinery and are involved in artisanal mining processes, among others.
In South Africa, the newly elected democratic government of 1994 adopted a number of strategies to open up the mining sector to historically disadvantaged South Africans, which include women, as part of its economic empowerment policy. Among others, new mining legislation, such as the
Although well intended, women working in the male-dominated mining environment are facing a range of obstacles, including sexual harassment (Badenhorst,
In light of the above background, the problem statement can be outlined as follows: On the one hand, mining companies are obliged to reach the set targets of the Mining Charter. Failing to adhere to the requirements of the Charter could result in mining companies losing their licences to operate. On the other hand, the requirement of the Mining Charter to include more women in the core business of mining broadened employment opportunities for women and therefore contributes to decreasing poverty in South Africa. However, at the same time, women are exposed to various challenges and risks, including sexual harassment.
Based on the problem statement described above, the purpose of the article is, firstly, to operationalise and conceptualise sexual harassment according to the literature; secondly, to provide theoretical explanations for the occurrence of sexual harassment in the mining industry; thirdly, to explore the occurrence of sexual harassment among women in mining according to the literature; fourthly, to determine sexual harassment issues among women in mining at selected mines; and lastly, to provide some recommendations to address sexual harassment in the mining industry.
According to Pons and Deale (
Sexual harassment can be seen as an abuse of power by which perpetrators use their position to exploit subordinates. Sexual harassment occurs in every kind of work setting, but some settings are more prone to sexual harassment than others (Wharton,
Although both women and men can be victims of sexual harassment, research suggests that women are more likely to experience sexual harassment than men (Wharton,
Sexual harassment also appears to be underreported. Studies revealed that employees – women as well as men – are unaware of proper channels to report these issues. Women are also less likely to report these incidents because they believe nothing will be done to stop the behaviour (Anderson & Taylor,
The consequences of sexual harassment can be economic, emotional and physical. By creating a hostile working environment, sexual harassment can influence productivity at work. Workers who have been sexually harassed may experience feelings of helplessness, fearfulness and powerless. Victims also tend to lose their ambition and self-confidence and experience a negative attitude towards their work (Anderson & Taylor,
Because of the contemporary women’s rights movement that began in the late 1960s, much has changed for both women and men in societies globally. However, despite tremendous advancements for women since the 1960s, gender inequality persists and manifests itself in many ways, among others in various discriminative practices, such as sexual harassment (Barkan,
A number of theoretical perspectives aimed to provide explanations for the occurrence of sexual harassment in the workplace. The following theoretical perspectives are presented: the natural/biological theory, socio-cultural theory, organisational theory, sex-role spillover theory, the four-factor theory of sexual harassment and feminist perspectives.
The
According to the
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From the above, it is evident that not one single theory or perspective can be singled out to explain the dimensions that may contribute to sexual harassment. The models discussed all attempt to provide some explanations for the occurrence of the sexual harassment phenomenon and hold some elements of truth, but are also subject to limitations. All factors discussed in each theory should be integrated to formulate a better understanding of the occurrence of the sexual harassment phenomenon in the workplace.
It is evident from research conducted in various countries across the globe that women working in the core business of the mining sector are still viewed as sexual objects and are still subjected to sexual harassment of some kind. Main findings of some of the research are discussed below.
In Canada, research conducted at the International Nickel Company in the 1970s revealed that female mine workers were subjected to many forms of sexual harassment, such as sexual language, crude jokes, threats and verbal and physical assaults. The research indicated that men used sexual harassment to maintain masculine dominance in the workplace (Keck & Powel,
In Australia in 1998, Pattenden (
In Papua New Guinea, Macintyre (cited in Lahiri-Dutt,
In South Africa, research conducted by various researchers and institutions revealed serious incidents of sexual harassment (Bench Marks Foundation, cited in Kolver,
In light of the above background, it is of paramount importance that mining companies follow the following steps to ensure a workplace free from sexual harassment (Nel
A good working sexual harassment policy must be developed. The policy statement must emphasise that sexual harassment in the workplace will not be tolerated.
Training on the sexual harassment policy must be provided to all employees, old and new.
The policy should also explain the procedure that should be followed by employees who are victims of sexual harassment.
A mechanism for reporting sexual harassment must be developed. Employees must be encouraged to speak out about and report these incidents.
Sexual harassment complaints must be thoroughly investigated.
Management must take prompt disciplinary action against those who commit sexual harassment and take appropriate action to protect the victims thereof.
The section to follow presents the research methodology that was employed for the research.
The research methodology for this study stemmed from both positivism and phenomenology. A mixed-method research design was followed by applying a quantitative and qualitative research approach. Mixed-methods research is thought to enrich the quality of findings and their credibility, validity, generalisability and popularity, among others (Sarantakos,
The research was conducted at the following three mines: a copper mine (underground), a platinum mine (underground) and a phosphate mine (open-cast). Convenience sampling was used to select the mines. Zikmund, Babin, Carr & Griffin (
Participants for the quantitative research were selected by employing convenience sampling. The study population consisted of the management of the three mines as well as male and female employees working in core mining activities. In total, responses were received from 156 research participants: 68 from the copper mine, 38 from the platinum mine and 50 from the phosphate mine.
Participants for the qualitative research were selected by using purposive or judgemental sampling. Purposive (judgemental) sampling is a non-probability sampling technique in which the units to be observed are selected on the basis of the researcher’s judgement about which ones will be the most relevant to the project (Babbie & Mouton,
Quantitative data were collected by means of a self-developed structured questionnaire consisting of open-ended and closed-ended questions. Further detail regarding the questionnaire construction is reported under the
Mixed-method research can enrich the quality and comprehensiveness of findings as well as their validity, generisability and popularity (Sarantokos,
Firstly, permission was requested from mine management to conduct research at the three mining companies. After permission was granted, the researcher visited the research settings to explain the details of the research. At each mine, a contact person was assigned to the researcher to provide the necessary assistance and support during the research. These activities include, among others, distributing and collecting the questionnaires, selecting suitable participants for the interviews, scheduling interviews and organising relevant field trips (underground as well as at surface). Individual and group interviews were scheduled between shifts in order not to interfere with the work responsibilities of the participants. The following ethical practices were considered: voluntary participation, informed consent, privacy, anonymity and confidentiality (Babbie & Mouton,
Quantitative data obtained through the questionnaires were analysed by the statistical software program SPSS 21.0 for Windows. The frequency analysis is reported per statement as mean and the following ranking for scores was used: Not at all/Strongly disagree (1); Seldom/Disagree (2); Partially/Agree (3) and Completely/Strongly agree (4). Ratings of 4 indicate that compliance with the specific statement is satisfactory, except for reversed statements. On the other hand, ratings of 2.5 and below show that compliance with the specific statement is none or very limited. The opposite is applicable for reversed statements; a statement with a mean above 2.5 could point towards a problem area.
Conceptual (thematic) analysis was used to analyse the responses obtained through the individual and group interviews. The following coding steps suggested by Palmquist (cited in Babbie & Mouton,
Reliability relates to the findings of the research and the credibility of the findings. Furthermore, reliability refers to the extent to which the obtained scores may be generalised to different measuring occasions, measurement or test forms and measurement or test administrators (Welman, Kruger & Mitchell,
Triangulation, the use of multiple methods, is considered as one of the best ways to enhance the validity and reliability of research. Triangulation can take place according to paradigms, methodologies, methods, researchers and so forth (Babbie & Mouton,
The section to follow presents the quantitative and qualitative findings of the participants’ opinions regarding sexual harassment in the workplace.
Questions were included in the survey to determine whether the participants are fully aware of the sexual harassment policy provided by the mining companies (see
Participants’ awareness of the sexual harassment policy.
Mine | Male target group |
Female target group |
Management target group |
||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Copper mine | 16 | 17 | 29 | 34 | 16 | 17 | |
Phosphate mine | 12 | 17 | 20 | 21 | 11 | 12 | |
Platinum mine | 16 | 16 | 19 | 22 | - | - |
Participants’ perceptions regarding mining companies’ sexual harassment policies.
Question | Male target group |
Female target group |
Management target group |
||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Seldom to not atall | Partially to completely | Mean | Seldom to not atall | Partially to completely | Mean | Seldom to not atall | Partially to completely | Mean | |
1.Do you feel women working in core mining activities have sufficient knowledge of the content and operational procedures of the sexualharassment policy? | 0.0 | 100.0 | 3.7 | 13.4 | 86.6 | 3.4 | 0.0 | 100 | 3.9 |
2.Do you think the mining company’s policies work well? | 5.9 | 94.1 | 3.6 | 10.0 | 90.0 | 3.3 | 0.0 | 100 | 3.7 |
1.Do you feel women working in core mining activities have sufficient knowledge of the content and operational procedures of the sexualharassment policy? | 12.5 | 87.5 | 3.5 | 21.1 | 79.0 | 3.4 | 0.0 | 100.0 | 3.6 |
2.Do you think the mining company’s policies work well? | 18.8 | 81.2 | 3.6 | 23.8 | 76.2 | 3.3 | 0.0 | 100.0 | 3.8 |
1.Do you feel women working in core mining activities have sufficient knowledge of the content and operational procedures of the sexualharassment policy? | 23.0 | 77.0 | 3.2 | 26.3 | 73.7 | 3.1 | - | - | - |
2.Do you think the mining company’s policies work well? | 7.7 | 92.3 | 3.5 | 10.6 | 89.4 | 3.4 | - | - | - |
Participants’ perceptions regarding sexual harassment and sexual favouritism in the workplace.
Indicator statement | Male target group |
Female target group |
Management target group |
||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Disagree to strongly disagree | Agree to strongly agree | Mean | Disagree to strongly disagree | Agree to strongly agree | Mean | Disagree to strongly disagree | Agree to strongly agree | Mean | |
1.®Sexual favouritism (in other words sexual favours for co-workers and management) is commonly practised in the mining company. | 58.8 | 41.2 | 2.3 | 56.7 | 43.3 | 2.4 | 93.8 | 6.2 | 1.56 |
2.®Sexual harassment (for example, threats, demands and bodily contact) is a general problem in the workplace. | 82.4 | 17.6 | 2.2 | 68.8 | 31.2 | 2.2 | 93.8 | 6.2 | 1.69 |
3.The mining company hasa committee that investigates sexual harassment issues in the workplace. | 11.8 | 88.2 | 3.2 | 21.3 | 78.7 | 3.0 | 12.5 | 87.5 | 3.31 |
4. The mining company effectively addresses sexualharassment in the workplace. | 5.9 | 94.1 | 3.3 | 24.3 | 75.8 | 2.9 | 0.0 | 100.0 | 3.44 |
1.®Sexual favouritism (in other words sexual favours for co-workers and management) is commonly practised in the mining company. | 28.6 | 71.4 | 2.7 | 80.0 | 20.0 | 2.0 | 100.0 | 0.0 | 1.8 |
2.®Sexual harassment (for example, threats, demands and bodily contact) is a general problem in the workplace. | 50.0 | 50.0 | 2.5 | 70.0 | 30.0 | 2.2 | 91.7 | 8.3 | 2.0 |
3.The mining company hasa committee that investigates sexual harassment issues in the workplace. | 37.5 | 62.5 | 2.8 | 15.0 | 85.0 | 3.0 | 50.0 | 50.0 | 2.5 |
4.The mining company effectively addresses sexual harassment in the workplace. | 31.3 | 68.7 | 2.9 | 20.0 | 80.0 | 3.0 | 8.3 | 91.7 | 3.2 |
1.®Sexual favouritism (in other words sexual favours for co-workers and management) is commonly practised in the mining company. | 20.0 | 80.0 | 3.1 | 38.0 | 62.0 | 2.5 | - | - | - |
2.®Sexual harassment (for example, threats, demands and bodily contact) is a general problem in the workplace. | 33.4 | 66.6 | 3.1 | 28.6 | 71.4 | 2.7 | - | - | - |
3.The mining company hasa committee that investigates sexual harassment issues in the workplace. | 60.0 | 40.0 | 2.4 | 40.0 | 60.0 | 2.5 | - | - | - |
4.The mining company effectively addresses sexualharassment in the workplace. | 28.5 | 71.5 | 2.8 | 28.5 | 71.5 | 2.8 | - | - | - |
The results in
From the results in
Although the quantitative findings revealed relatively positive results, the qualitative enquiry (semi-structured interviews and open-ended questions of the questionnaire) revealed loopholes as well as limitations regarding the sexual harassment policy. The main concerns identified were discussed in the subsequent sections.
Although the quantitative findings revealed that the female participants working in the core business of mining demonstrate partial to complete knowledge of the content and operational procedures of the sexual harassment policies, a serious need for workshops and continuous training on policies was detected. This statement is reinforced by the following quotations:
We don’t have much knowledge of the policies, because we are just operators. We just see things in a distance, we are not close to it, and we do not really know what is happening. (Female, operator, copper mine)
I think each policy should be discussed at least once to get a good understanding of it. (Female, mining engineer, copper mine)
A need for transparency was strongly voiced. The participants indicated that policy documents should be available to each and every employee of the mines. The following comment was made by a participant in this regard:
The mine is self-centred when [
Although the intention of specific company policies is to coordinate and regulate particular aspects of the employment relationship, a gap often exists between policies and the implementation thereof. Although policies exist, problems are experienced with the actual implementation and application thereof. The following quotation provides an indication of one of the participants’ opinions regarding the implementation and application of policies:
A lot of things looks good on paper, but the application thereof is quite a different thing. (Female, fitter and turner, copper mine)
Questions were included in the survey to determine whether the female participants had been approached for sex in the workplace in exchange for favours and whether they have ever been sexually harassed in the workplace. The responses to these questions were extremely positive across the mines, as only an insignificant percentage answered ‘yes’, as indicated in
Have you ever been approached for sex in the workplace in exchange for favours?
Have you ever been sexually harassed in the workplace?
Although the quantitative responses revealed only positive results, the literature review as well as the qualitative enquiry indicates that sexual harassment and sexual favouritism remain major issues in the mining industry. Detailed concerns regarding sexual harassment are reported further on in this section.
The statements in
From
Different views were obtained for the indicator
It was evident from the qualitative inquiry that the participants of all three mines included in the study confirmed that sexual harassment is seen as a serious offence and that training and education take place regularly at the mines. Furthermore, companies engage in the practices of training sessions for newly recruited employees and regular awareness campaigns on the procedures to follow if sexual harassment occurs. Despite these attempts, sexual harassment remains an issue and incidents do occur. The main concerns regarding sexual harassment were raised during the individual and group interviews, discussed in the subsequent sections.
Although the majority of the female participants indicated that they are familiar with the procedure to follow if sexually harassed, there are still women who are unsure of their rights and who are still afraid of reporting sexual harassment attempts or incidents. The following reasons were put forward for why women often remain silent: They are afraid of losing their jobs at the mine, they do not want to put their male co-workers in a ‘bad’ position and they do not find it easy to lodge complaints of harassment with male supervisors.
It was indicated that women are exposed to verbal sexual harassment on a regular basis, especially when they are being transported in packed cages. Moreover, because of the nature of the mining industry as a male-dominated workplace, men are used to communicating in certain ways and often use ‘bad language’ when carrying out heavy tasks. Female co-workers often feel offended by the way men communicate and by the type of language they use. The following quotations illustrate these points:
Verbal sexual harassment happens almost every day. (Female, operator, copper mine)
Men often called me ‘baby’ or ‘sweetheart’. They feel that they can call me anything. (Female, electrician, copper mine)
Some men can make you feel so small, like maybe you are in the cage, they call you names. Some tell you that ‘you are fat, you are wasting our time, let me pass’. So not all men are accepting that women are working on the mine. Some things that they say, they think they are funny and you can see that this person doesn’t know he can lose his job. They think sexual harassment is just touching a person, they don’t know if you insult a person it is sexual harassment, so they have still a lot to learn. (Female, learner rock breaker, platinum mine)
It was reported that working the night shift contributes to the occurrence of sexual harassment incidents, as male co-workers often take advantage of these circumstances. Women do not feel at ease and safe when working with so many men during the night:
To be honest, we are sexually harassed. They take advantage of us, because we are women and we are working at night with them. It is very uncomfortable. Let me just stop right there, because it is very uncomfortable. But what can you do, because it is a small place. (Female, operator, copper mine)
It became clear that the cages in which workers are transported are normally packed to maximum capacity and therefore also contribute to the occurrence of sexual harassment incidents. Physical contact is inevitable; employees are obliged to press against each other. The following comments were made in this regard:
In the cage, they will push us like this and you can’t even breathe and the man is after you, you can feel his whole body pressing against you. Then they say like ‘what are you doing here at the mine?’, ‘my woman is at home, you are here at the mine’. (Female, general worker, platinum mine)
There are too many people in the cage. The big one takes 80 people down, 80 people up. The small one takes 35 people. But these girls who are working there, they don’t count, they can put maybe 100 into the cage. Some men take advantage and push against the ladies. (Male, development crew, platinum mine)
Although discrepancies were evident in the quantitative results (see
Ja, it does happen. Like they won’t do it where everybody is looking, but you see that something is going on here and that person will be favoured. But all the promotions that person will get because you know that she did 1, 2, 3 … And it is not nice for other women who are working with that lady, because you know you are not going anywhere because you don’t want to sleep with that guy. (Female, learner rock breaker, platinum mine)
For them it is easy to get promotion, because they fall in love with the official and they get promotion. I’ve been working 10 years, but no promotion. (Male, teamleader, platinum mine)
According to the male participants, women often misuse sexual harassment to manipulate men in the workplace, as noted in the following comment:
Some women have this attitude. I’m working, nobody can touch me, nobody can do me nothing. You touch her, you harass her. If she doesn’t like you, you harass her. Slight mistake, you’re gone in mining. And the company is going to follow the procedure of the mine. Even the woman can touch me, I can’t say the woman has harassed me. Let me touch her, I’ve harassed her. (Male, electrical assistant, platinum mine)
It was evident from the qualitative inquiry that sexual harassment is regarded as a serious offence and is also treated accordingly. Management of the different mining companies aim to minimise the occurrence of sexual harassment by conducting regular training and education interventions on sexual harassment. The following comment was made in this regard:
Some form of harassment will always be part of the workplace, but we as management will not tolerate any sexual harassment. If management do not act decisively against it, you will never really get rid of it. It also depends on the behaviour of the woman. She must also act decisively, in other words if it looks like the guys want to tell dirty jokes, she must say ‘no’ beforehand. But I also feel that if you want to work in the mining industry, you should not be faint-hearted. Sometimes men use bad language when they are struggling doing a job. They do not mean to talk badly. (Female, senior manager, phosphate mine)
From the research (literature review, quantitative results and qualitative findings) it is evident that sexual harassment and sexual favouritism remain serious concerns in the mining industry. Although sexual harassment is treated as a serious offence by management (of the three mines included in the study) and is not tolerated, sexual harassment incidents take place on a daily basis and in varied forms. It is clear that some mines are faring better than others with regard to the handling of sexual harassment and sexual favouritism in the workplace.
The quantitative results suggest that a vast majority of the participants, across all three mines, are aware of the existence of the sexual harassment policy, demonstrate sufficient knowledge of the policy and hold the opinion that the policy is working well. However, the qualitative findings showed that there are still employees who lack knowledge of the content and operational procedure of the policy; a need for transparency was indicated. Furthermore, it was also indicated that, although policies exist, problems are experienced with the actual implementation and application thereof. As indicated in the literature review, regular training for old and new employees on the sexual harassment policy is of utmost importance. Furthermore, mining companies should also have a business plan in place to facilitate the implementation of the policy (Nel, Kirsten, Swanepoel, Erasmus & Poisat,
Although
In the light of the findings of the research, the following recommendations are made:
Management should show more visible leadership and ongoing commitment in terms of sexual harassment. Implementation and operationalisation of the sexual harassment policy as well as relevant mechanisms are required. The content of the policy should be communicated to all employees (male and female employees) on a regular basis via training and workshops. A clear reporting mechanism should be developed. Anonymous reporting lines are suggested to protect victims. Prompt action on sexual harassment incidents is fundamental.
An effective support system (Women in Mining Forum, female representatives at shafts, etc.) for women in mining should be implemented. Issues raised should be addressed effectively and speedily. Measures such as career counselling should be provided to support women in dealing with sexual harassment issues in the workplace.
Management should consider appointing more than one woman in a work team to prevent isolation and to make the work environment more conducive to women.
Companies should engage in regular research interventions to measure progress on sexual harassment incidents and to reveal further issues in this regard.
Although mining companies view sexual harassment as a serious offence and treat it accordingly, it is evident that much more needs to be done to minimise and eliminate the occurrences of sexual harassment in the workplace. A holistic approach, which requires input of relevant state departments such as the Department of Mineral Resources and the Mine Health and Safety Council, regular training and awareness campaigns on sexual harassment and prompt action by human resource managers and labour experts, is needed. Relevant state departments (mentioned above) should be outspoken on the topic and should engage in regular research interventions to measure the status of sexual harassment in the mining industry. They should show visible leadership by assisting mining companies to eradicate sexual harassment in the industry. Human resource managers and labour experts should not only develop and implement a sexual harassment policy but also implement prompt disciplinary action.
A limitation of the study lies in the accessibility of the mining sector as a research setting. To gain access to the mines was extremely difficult. A number of correspondences took place before permission was granted for the research. The platinum mine also experienced many difficulties and labour unrest during the time the research was conducted. This eventually culminated into the postponement and cancelling of interviews as well as no quantitative responses (questionnaires) from the management target group. The following additional factors also posed challenges to the research: not all participants scheduled for the interviews turned up for the meetings and others could not stay for the duration of the interviews due to work responsibilities, emergencies and tiredness as a result of shift work.
From the research, it is clear that women working in the core business of the mining industry are still exploited and sexually harassed. Employment relations practitioners and labour experts should take note of the seriousness of this phenomenon. All necessary measures should be taken to prevent and address sexual harassment complaints and incidents.
The author declares that she has no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced her in writing this article.