The study focused on examining the perceptions of dual-career couples at a state-owned company about the influence of taking maternity and paternity leave on the career progression of black African women in middle management and leadership occupations.
The primary purpose of the study was to identify core barriers in relation to maternity and paternity leave that contribute negatively in the career progression of black African women in dual-career couples.
To obtain insight into the underrepresentation and progression of black African women within dual-career couples, in middle management and leadership occupations.
This study was qualitative, comprising a sample of 10 black African women and 10 black African men, with data collected through in-depth semi-structured interviews. Thematic analysis was utilised to analyse the interview dialogues.
The findings established that taking maternity leave has a negative influence on the career progression of black African women in dual-career couples at the state-owned company. The participants further confirmed that involuntary time off work and productiveness were principal influencing barriers of taking maternity leave, leading to other undesirable consequences, such as unproductiveness and reliability.
The state-owned company should review its current talent management and recruitment and selection policies, in order to positively contribute to increasing the representation and facilitating career progression of black African women within dual-career couples, in middle management and leadership occupations.
Insights were provided on the influences of taking maternity and paternity leave in the underrepresentation and progression of black African women within dual-career couples, in middle management and leadership occupations.
Family and organisational support are two primary elements that play a pivotal role in the career progression of women into leadership and top management roles, especially those who are part of a dual-career couple (DCC) (Smit,
The study focused on examining how taking maternity leave (ML) and paternity leave (PL) influences the career progression of black African women in DCCs, in middle management and leadership occupations. The study was conducted in a state-owned company (SOC), as SOCs are some of the primary custodians in promoting equal employment opportunities as per the
The primary purpose of the study was to identify core barriers in relation to ML and PL that contribute negatively to the career progression of black African women in DCCs. The study also enabled the researcher to determine how black African women manage tension between their work and family roles and the impact this may have on their career goals and success. It could be argued that if a woman successfully manages family responsibilities with sufficient and relevant support, her career could positively progress, as she will have a fair opportunity to pursue her career goals (Nath,
For the purposes of this study, the term black African women refers to only black South African women, excluding women of mixed race and those of Indian background. The below extract provides an indication on how black African women are bound, to a certain extent, by culturally inherent practices that define them, and their place in society and within the family unit:
The vital life goal of Black African women is to be oriented within their culture. This means to be rooted in the knowledge and practice of the culture of one’s peoples, to extract lessons from it and to use it in emancipatory, transformative and enriching ways. Being a Black African women begins with and is rooted in African tradition and culture. (Karenga & Tembo,
Traditionally, men were expected to fulfil the role of sole earner in the household. Women were then expected to assume economic dependency and the role of motherhood, with no aspiration for career acknowledgement and fulfilment (Bosch, De Bruin, De Bruin & Kgaladi,
Such socialisation can bring about many consequences that could eventually influence young black African women when they are mature and are required to make life-enhancing decisions that affect their future and growth. Such influence could bring about thinking among black African women that they would never be equal to men, be it socially or economically. For many years, the majority of black African women have been inactive in the employment arena, with most of those that are employed not being as career-orientated as men. This is a result of the historical role that was imposed on them (Greenhaus, Callanan & Godshalk,
Herman (
Hall (
The primary aim of the study was to examine how taking ML and PL influences the career progression of black African women as part of DCCs at an SOC. The research problem was that we did not adequately understand the impact that taking ML and PL had on the career progression of black African women as part of DCCs at the SOC, within middle management and leadership occupations.
Motherhood has developed from the standard care-giving role towards a role of rising importance regarding attaining individual aspirations within the context of life, as well as a career (Moore,
The fertility rate of black African women in 2010, with an average of 2.3 children, shows a clear obligation that is still being experienced by black African women in their quest to balance career goals and childbearing responsibilities (Smit,
While care-giving behaviours have been mostly related to feminine values and characteristics (Mainiero & Sullivan,
Through this study, it has been established that taking ML and PL has a direct and indirect influence on the perceived career progression of black African women in DCCs at a specific SOC, in middle management and leadership occupations. In the acknowledgement of this influence, the study also contributed to the limited theory and knowledge on the topic and field of study within the context of South Africa (SA). Furthermore, the study identified a relationship between the black African women and black African men in their experiences and understandings of the influence of ML on the career progression of black African women in DCCs at an SOC, with a 90% support of such an influence across all the participants. The identification of this relation proved to be quite essential and added value to the overall study in indicating certain commonalities regarding how black African women and black African men perceive one another within the workplace and family environment.
The following section reviews relevant current literature on ML and PL and the career progression of black African women. The research design is then presented followed by a report on the data gathered. The article is concluded after a detailed discussion on the main findings, limitations of the study and recommendations for future research.
The isolation of women in the notion of working-class encounters in SA must ideally be studied within the framework of the colonial and apartheid constructions of African women (Tshoaedi,
Some of these developments lie in the establishment of legislation and policies that promote the participation of women in the labour market, such as the
In spite of some of the accomplishments of women in SA, a lot still has to be overcome both socially and economically to see more meaningful change for women in SA. It has been argued that notwithstanding the nuanced gender equality rights and complemented legislation on paper, women still encompass the majority of the underprivileged and marginalised in SA (Sadie,
Historically, black African women who were privileged enough to have been employed were customarily employed as domestic workers mainly. In 1998, an estimated total average of more than 80% of all domestic workers was black African women. While also concurrently acting as heads of their families in certain instances, black African women were greatly disadvantaged, as they also often received far lower incomes than black African men (Forger et al.,
During black African women’s career progression prior to 1994, black African women were subjected to a conceptual acknowledgement called ‘double jeopardy’ or ‘double discrimination’ (De Vries,
Maternity leave refers to granting women time off work before and after childbirth and, in some cases, for adoption of a child (
In the SA context, ML is a legislative entitlement under the BCEA, which stipulates that ML can be taken for a period of up to four consecutive months (BCEA,
It is also quite cognisant to appreciate the efforts by some countries including SA and many European countries in making paid ML a reality, whereas women in other countries like United States are not privileged to this right (LRA,
Paternity leave refers to the short-term leave available to fathers in the period subsequent to the delivery or adoption of a child, affording men the opportunity to devote additional time to their families, while maintaining job security (Evans,
Most southern African countries compare poorly to European Union countries when comparing PL policies and legislation. Slovenia offers PL of 90 days, Finland 7–21 days and Denmark 14 days (Lammi-Taskula, 2008; quoted in Smit,
There is little knowledge documented regarding the understanding and involvement of black African men as fathers within the context of PL (Wall,
Hardill (
The interchange to parenthood may seem to be a seamless family portrayal, but may also have the potential of negatively impacting the work domain (Wheatly,
Employment by occupation, population group and sex, Q3: 2015.
Women | Skilled | Semi-skilled | Low-skilled |
---|---|---|---|
White | 57.8 | 41.4 | 0.8 |
Asian/Indian | 48.0 | 47.9 | 4.1 |
Mixed race | 20.7 | 46.6 | 32.7 |
Black African | 17.6 | 39.0 | 43.4 |
Note: ‘Skilled’ includes manager, professional and technician occupations; ‘Semi-skilled’ includes clerk, sales and services, skilled agriculture, craft and related trade and plant and machine operator occupations; ‘Low-skilled’ includes elementary and domestic worker occupations.
This study was qualitative, whereby in-depth, semi-structured interviews were utilised in examining the influence of ML and PL on the career progression of black African women who are part of DCCs at an SOC, in middle management and leadership occupations. A qualitative design enriched the context of the study in comprehending real-life social experiences that black African women encounter in their daily working lives. The qualitative approach allows little or no disruption and manipulation of their existing working social life cohesion (Holiday,
An interpretivist theoretical approach was adopted in the study. The ontological stance of the researcher in the study was that there is no one realism. Based on the researcher’s view, reality is subjective, socially accumulated and founded on the insights and experiences of the researcher and the participants (Creswell,
The study was conducted at an SOC in SA, as SOCs are considered to be one of the primary custodians in promoting employment equity in the best interest of the country’s transformation policies. This SOC operates within the research and development and energy sectors. Its primary activities include research and development, engineering and manufacturing.
A researcher normally gains admission to an organisational setting by obtaining the consent of the persons in charge. Permission to conduct the study at this SOC was granted by the Group Executive: Corporate Services. The researcher’s role in this study was primarily that of an insider researcher; with consideration that the researcher is male, not yet married, not part of a DCC and not yet a father. This to a certain extent enhanced the researcher’s lack of bias. The role was furthermore limited to that of a Human Resource (HR) business partner aspiring to add value and novel knowledge to the field of study (Schurink,
The population of the study comprised black African women and black African men, who work at the SOC in middle and leadership occupations and who are part of a DCC. The sample consisted of 20 participants. Non-random convenience purposive sampling was utilised. The selection of the participants in qualitative studies largely emanates from the target population of the research setting, which materialises in a convenience purposive sample of individuals. These individuals would have had exposure to some of the problem statement elements (Ryan, Coughlin & Cronin,
The sample comprised 10 black African women and 10 black African men – whereby all 20 participants were permanent black African employees of the SOC, who had functional backgrounds in finance, human resources, science and engineering, research and development, training and development and corporate business management. Furthermore, the primary participants were black African women within the various levels of the organisational hierarchy, with a majority of them in middle management and leadership positions. Middle-level to leadership management–level positions were selected as they are the roles that are being researched. These positions are being studied as they are deemed to be career phases, which are both demanding and arduous in terms of leadership and achievement.
Furthermore, the sample selection criterion was that the black African women and black African men participating in the study must be married and part of a DCC and also have a minimum of one child in their individual family unit. Participants who had a minimum of one child offered an opportunity to examine the complexity involved in balancing domestic and employment roles as well as how ML and PL are utilised. This also highlighted the intricacy that transpires within the fundamentals of child-caring responsibilities.
Semi-structured, in-depth, face-to-face interviews were utilised as the primary data collection mechanism for this study. In-depth interviewing, also called ‘conversational interviewing’ is a common technique utilised by qualitative researchers (Schurink,
When recording data during qualitative research, researchers must pledge to keep their data physically well organised, develop a plan about how they foresee doing it and ensure that they adhere to their scheme or plan. Researchers must also create a back-up system. It is important to keep hard copies of all recorded data in a manual filing system, to ensure that valuable data are not lost in case of any unforeseen circumstances. Many different types of documents are used by researchers to enrich their data, and these need to be stored safely (Bogdan & Biklen,
In this study, all the interviews were recorded by means of a digital dictaphone, accompanied by representative field notes. The researcher transcribed the data from the interviews to enhance confidentiality and anonymity of the participants (Nath,
Thematic analysis was utilised to analyse the interview dialogues in the data analysis of this research. Thematic analysis can be stated to be a qualitative statistical methodology of factor analysis or exploration gathering, dually aiming to define a complex data set in relation to a number of scopes or groupings (Barker & Pistrang,
Furthermore, the purpose of utilising thematic analysis was to realise and make sense of shared significances and experiences (Braun & Clarke,
The soundness of the study was determined by its credibility, transparency and transferability. Credibility can be established by whether the data dialogued with the participants relates to the conclusions of the research inquiry (Esterberg,
Elliott, Fischer and Rennie ( Foundation (providing some of the raw data upon basing findings); Transparency (revealing own preferences and prospects); Consistency (themes correspond with data outline); and Credibility checks (engaging other sources). (Barker & Pistrang,
In the quest to attain sound validity and credibility in qualitative research, a researcher’s insider involvement has to be proclaimed throughout a qualitative study, irrespective of the picture this may depict (Miles & Huberman,
In the endeavour to enrich credibility, comprehensive details pertaining to data gathering, analysis and interpretation of a study should be provided. Beck (
The researcher adhered to research ethics throughout this study. The primary objective and value of ethics is striving to protect the dignity, well-being, rights and interests of the participants involved in a research study at all times, regardless of any possible setbacks it may convey to a study (Quick & Hall,
The primary purpose of the study was to examine the influence of ML and PL on the career progression of black African women as part of DCCs at an SOC, in order to obtain more insight on the underrepresentation and slow progression of black African women in middle management and leadership roles. As a result, eight key themes, described below, were identified during the interview process.
The initial theme that came about was that of commitment and motivation. Lack of commitment and motivation was a challenge or barrier, in that its absence within black African women represented a hindering element that led to a complacent focus in black African women’s career aspirations, affecting and delaying any proactive efforts of a positive career progression.
The participant responses in the study supported the above discussion and interpretation, whereby black African women indicated that a lack of commitment and motivation towards their careers was a self-imposed challenge. In comparison to men, the attitudes of women tend to be an important barrier in women’s careers, if they are not being truly committed and motivated. Male participants in the study shared the same implication regarding black African women and women in general as not being committed and motivated to their careers, resulting in them not progressing as ideally as they had hoped. Based on the response summary of the participants, 70% of the black African women supported this theme and 80% of black African men were also in support of the theme, signifying its importance.
The second theme that came about in the study was patriarchal dominance and supremacy. This theme primarily indicated that apart from women being a great barrier in their career progression in terms of lacking commitment and motivation, men transpired to be an important barrier in their career progression, through a societal system that advantages and privileges men. Johnson (
Within the study, both male and female participants acknowledged patriarchal dominance and supremacy in their society as a barrier in the career progression of women in DCCs at the SOC, and more specifically for black African women. The participants’ supporting responses indicated that the labour market is greatly male dominated and predominantly white male dominated, especially within the middle management to leadership positions.
The third theme that came about in the study was internal family support. As indicated in the literature, internal support is one of the most essential support elements for the career progression of black African women in DCCs, bearing in mind that black African women are still responsible for most of the household and childrearing burdens (Hall & MacDermid,
Organisational and managerial support was the fourth theme that came about in the study. As depicted in the literature, April, Dreyer and Blass (
The participants’ responses supported the above interpretation in that they further acknowledged time off and availability as another deficient organisational support mechanism that also greatly influenced the career progression of black African women and women in general in DCCs at an SOC. This came about on a number of substantiating grounds, whereby 85% of the participants maintained that involuntary time off work and unavailability resulting from taking ML were the dominating and limiting factors in the career progression of black African women in DCCs.
The fifth theme that came about in the study was culture and upbringing. Traditionally, men were expected to fulfil the role of sole earner in the household, while women were expected to assume economic dependency and the role of motherhood, with no aspiration for career acknowledgement and fulfilment (Bosch et al.,
A certain number of black African women participants further portrayed a customary undesirable behaviour of perceiving the motherhood burden solely on themselves. Black African women seem to not realise that times and customary tradition have evolved and that men are equally accountable for actively taking part in fatherhood and household responsibilities (Harrington et al.,
Training, development and mentoring came about as the sixth theme of the study. Both spouses in DCCs work vastly in experienced managerial, professional and leadership roles. As a result, it becomes quite apparent that education, training and even mentoring stand to be essential elements in both spouses gaining entry into these occupations and more importantly, in maintaining these roles and their work–life balance. In the absence of education, training and mentoring, they would most likely not have the necessary knowledge in being competent and excelling within their professional occupations (Hakim,
In the study, 65% of the participants supported and greatly acknowledged the impact of training, development as well as mentoring on the career progression of black African women in DCCs at an SOC. The sustenance came from both black African women and black African men participants underpinning the essentiality of this theme in the careers of black African women in DCCs. The participants’ responses further specified the importance of career guidance at an early stage, as an important component in ensuring that black African women make the right career choices systematically and early within their career journeys. None of the black African women participants indicated having been mentored in any way thus far in their career journey, except for receiving some form of support from a manager.
The seventh theme that came about in the study was socio-economic support. The absence of a fundamental socio-economic support system that solemnly prioritises the participation and advancement of black African women in the labour market is considered a barrier to the career progression of black African woman. Within the study, 55% of the participants’ responses supported the above argument, whereby there was vast acknowledgement of black African women being the most undermined and underrepresented group of women in the labour market. The participants’ responses further indicated a need for legislated PL. They also argued that although legislative bodies had the authority of implementing such legislated PL, they were not prioritising it on their agenda.
The last and eighth theme that came about in the study was ‘fairly progressed but not ideal’ careers for black African women. This theme supported and reinforced all the previous themes generated and identified in the study, portraying a comprehensive overall story about the research data. All the identified themes in the study comprehended this unified and overarching theme of fairly progressed but not ideal careers for black African women. As a result, 80% of black African women participants indicated that their careers had progressed fairly, but acknowledged that they were not in their ideal career phase. Of the black African men participants, 60% also acknowledged that their spouses’ careers had progressed, but not ideally as they had hoped. Only 20% of black African men admitted to their spouses’ careers having progressed well, attributing such success to the support they had provided throughout their spouses’ career.
The primary aim of the study was to examine how taking ML and PL influences the career progression of black African women as part of DCCs at an SOC. The main and key finding of this study was that it was established that taking ML and PL had a direct and indirect influence on the career progression of black African women in DCCs at this SOC, in middle management and leadership occupations. Of the participants, 90% agreed that taking ML has a negative influence on the career progression of black African women in DCCs at the SOC, in middle management and leadership occupations. There were a number of direct and indirect influencing reasons for this influence, but the most predominant reasons emanated as a result of taking ML and PL, and their underlying components, as indicated below.
Of the black African women participants, 80% indicated that their careers had progressed fairly, but acknowledged that they were not at their ideal career phase because of taking ML and other family-related commitments. Furthermore, 85% of the participants confirmed involuntary time off work and productiveness as principal influencing barriers of taking ML in the career progression of black African women in DCCs at the SOC, leading to other undesirable consequences, which can further impede on the career progression of black African women, such as unproductiveness, unreliability and stunted growth opportunities.
Of the black African men participants, 60% acknowledged that their spouses’ careers had progressed, but not as ideally as they had hoped because of taking ML and other family-related commitments. Only 20% of black African men admitted to their spouses’ careers having progressed well, attributing success to the support they had provided throughout their spouses’ careers. Of the participants, including both black African women and black African men, 95% agreed that taking PL has a positive influence on the career progression of black African women in DCCs at an SOC.
The low representation of black African women in DCCs at the SOC in middle management and leadership occupations depicts the influence that taking ML can have on their career progression. Current talent management and recruitment and selection policies engaged by management require to be reviewed in contributing positively to the career progression of black African women.
The most dominant limitations was that the study was only limited to one specific SOC, and therefore, does not represent the current status of other SOCs within the SA labour market. The private sector and other spheres of the government sector were not included as part of the research setting, omitting an untapped school of knowledge within the research topic. The sample of the study was limited to black African women and black African men within DCCs at this SOC, possibly leaving some untapped experiences of other black African women and women in general within their career progression journey. Furthermore, there was limited literature about African DCCs in general and about the relationship between ML and PL and the career progression of black African women in particular.
Future research could be carried out on the same topic covering a broader sample of black African women and across the entire SA labour market in order to confirm the findings and durability of the current study. Furthermore, a quantitative approach covering a larger population could be adopted. Extended research could also look into other challenges and barriers, besides taking ML and PL, which play a role in the career progression of black African women within the SA labour market, specifically within the private sector or within SOCs.
The study established that there are direct and indirect influences that taking ML and PL have on the career progression of black African women at an SOC, in middle management and leadership occupations. In acknowledgement of this influence, the literature determined that in their quest for career progression, a majority of black African women still occupy unskilled occupations, highlighting their struggle in progressing into middle management and leadership occupations (QLFS, Q3, 2015). This highlighted the challenges of black African women especially those in DCCs, in their attempts to achieve their ideal career progression goals and objectives. The study further indicated that legislation still fails black African women, resulting in discrimination and stereotypes that still persist and remain a prevalent barrier. However, the study ascended two unfamiliar barriers; firstly that some black African women lack dedication to their careers and secondly, that their male counterparts are afforded privileges and advantages as a result of patriarchal dominance in the society, which further suppresses women in their career growth.
The authors declare that they have no financial or personal relationships which may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.
The study was conducted by L.L.M. as part of his Masters in Human Resource Management research project in 2016. M.H.R.B. was L.L.M.’s supervisor and edited the work for publication. R.M.J. was L.L.M.’s co-supervisor and also assisted in editing the work for publication.